Chapter One: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Here are the main points from the provided sources on electric charges and fields, organized with headings and subheadings:

Chapter One: Electric Charges and Fields

1.1 Introduction

Many common phenomena, such as sparks or crackles from synthetic clothes in dry weather, lightning during thunderstorms, or electric shocks when touching a car door, are due to the discharge of electric charges accumulated through the rubbing of insulating surfaces.

This phenomenon is related to the generation of static electricity.

Static refers to anything that does not move or change with time.

Electrostatics is the study of forces, fields, and potentials that arise from static charges.

1.2 Electric Charge

Historical Discovery: The discovery that amber, when rubbed with wool or silk, attracts light objects is credited to Thales of Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC.

The word "electricity" is derived from the Greek word "elektron," meaning amber.

Observations from Experiments:

Two glass rods rubbed with wool or silk repel each other.

Two strands of wool or silk, after rubbing rods, also repel each other.

A glass rod and wool (or silk) attract each other.

Two plastic rods rubbed with cat's fur repel each other.

A plastic rod attracts cat's fur.

A plastic rod attracts a glass rod but repels the silk/wool used to rub the glass rod.

A glass rod repels fur.

Two Kinds of Electric Charge: After extensive experiments, it was concluded that there are only two kinds of electric charge.

Electrification: Bodies like glass or plastic rods, silk, fur, and pith balls are said to be electrified (or charged) when they acquire an electric charge through rubbing.

Rules of Interaction:

Like charges repel each other.

Unlike charges attract each other.

Polarity of Charge: This property differentiates the two kinds of charges.

Neutralization: When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires one kind of charge and the silk acquires the second kind. If these electrified bodies are brought into contact, they lose their acquired charges and no longer attract or repel other light objects. This indicates that unlike charges neutralize or nullify each other's effect.

Naming of Charges: The American scientist Benjamin Franklin named these charges positive and negative. By convention, the charge on a glass rod or cat's fur is called positive, and that on a plastic rod or silk is termed negative.

An object with no electric charge is considered electrically neutral.

Gold-Leaf Electroscope: This is a simple apparatus used to detect charge on a body. It consists of a vertical metal rod with two thin gold leaves at the bottom; when a charged object touches the knob, charge flows to the leaves, causing them to diverge. The degree of divergence indicates the amount of charge.

Origin of Charge in Materials: All matter is composed of atoms and/or molecules, which, although normally electrically neutral, contain charges that are exactly balanced. When a body is electrified, it means there is an excess or deficit of a certain type of charge.

Electron Transfer: In solids, some electrons are less tightly bound and can be transferred from one body to another.

A body becomes positively charged by losing electrons.

A body becomes negatively charged by gaining electrons.

For example, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, electrons are transferred from the rod to the silk, making the rod positive and the silk negative.

Conservation of Charge in Rubbing: No new charge is created or destroyed during rubbing; only a transfer of existing electrons occurs. The number of electrons transferred is a very small fraction of the total electrons in the material.

1.3 Conductors and Insulators

Conductors: Substances that readily allow the passage of electricity through them are called conductors. They possess electric charges (electrons) that are relatively free to move inside the material. Examples include metals, human and animal bodies, and the earth.

Insulators: Substances that offer high resistance to the passage of electricity are called insulators. Examples include glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, and wood.

Charge Distribution:

When charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily distributes over the entire surface.

When charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place.

This property explains why a nylon or plastic comb electrifies on combing dry hair, but a metal spoon does not, as charges on metal leak through our body to the ground (both are conductors). However, a metal rod can be charged if its metal part is not touched while rubbing (e.g., if it has a wooden or plastic handle).

Semiconductors: There is a third category of materials, semiconductors, which offer resistance to charge movement that is intermediate between conductors and insulators.

1.4 Basic Properties of Electric Charge

Point Charges: If the size of charged bodies is very small compared to the distances between them, they are treated as point charges, with all charge concentrated at one point.

1.4.1 Additivity of Charges

The total charge of a system containing multiple point charges (q1, q2, ..., qn) is obtained by algebraically adding the individual charges.

Charges add like real numbers; they are scalars, similar to mass.

Unlike mass, which is always positive, charge can be either positive or negative, requiring proper signs when adding.

Example: The total charge of a system with +1, +2, –3, +4, and –5 units is (+1) + (+2) + (–3) + (+4) + (–5) = –1 unit.

1.4.2 Charge is Conserved

When bodies are charged by rubbing, electrons are transferred; no new charges are created or destroyed.

Within an isolated system of charged bodies, charges may redistribute due to interactions, but the total charge of the system always remains conserved.

Conservation of charge has been established experimentally.

Net charge carried by an isolated system cannot be created or destroyed, even if charge-carrying particles are created or destroyed (e.g., a neutron turning into a proton and an electron, where the new particles have equal and opposite charges, maintaining zero total charge).

1.4.3 Quantisation of Charge

All free charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, denoted by 'e'.

This is expressed as q = ne, where 'n' is any integer (positive or negative).

The basic unit 'e' is the charge carried by an electron (–e) or a proton (+e).

The fact that electric charge is always an integral multiple of 'e' is called quantisation of charge.

This concept was first suggested by Faraday's laws of electrolysis and experimentally demonstrated by Millikan in 1912.

SI Unit: In the International System (SI) of Units, the unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

A coulomb is defined in terms of the unit of electric current (ampere): one coulomb is the charge flowing through a wire in 1 second if the current is 1 ampere.

The value of the basic unit of charge 'e' is 1.602192 × 10–19 C.

Approximately 6 × 10^18 electrons are present in a charge of –1C.

For practical purposes in electrostatics, smaller units like microcoulomb (µC = 10–6 C) or millicoulomb (mC = 10–3 C) are often used because 1 C is a very large unit.

Macroscopic vs. Microscopic: If a body has n1 electrons and n2 protons, its total charge is (n2 – n1)e, which is always an integral multiple of 'e'. At the macroscopic level, where charges are typically a few mC, the step size 'e' is so small that the grainy nature of charge is not visible, and charge appears to be continuous. However, at the microscopic level, where charges are small multiples of 'e', quantisation cannot be ignored. This is analogous to a dotted line appearing continuous from a distance.

Examples:

Example 1.1: To accumulate a charge of 1 C if 10^9 electrons move out of a body per second, it would take approximately 198 years (roughly 200 years). This highlights that one coulomb is a very large unit.

Example 1.2: A cup of water (250g) contains approximately 1.34 × 10^7 C of both positive and negative charge.

1.5 Coulomb’s Law

Definition: Coulomb's law provides a quantitative statement about the force between two point charges.

Conditions: Applicable when the linear size of charged bodies is much smaller than the distance separating them, allowing them to be treated as point charges.

Findings: Coulomb measured the force and found that it was:

Inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r^2) between the charges.

Directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges (q1q2).

Acted along the line joining the two charges.

Mathematical Expression (Magnitude): If two point charges q1, q2 are separated by a distance 'r' in vacuum, the magnitude of the force (F) between them is given by: F = k * (q1 * q2) / r^2 (Equation 1.1).

Coulomb's Method: He used a torsion balance to measure forces. To vary charges, he utilized the principle that if a charged metallic sphere touches an identical uncharged sphere, the charge distributes equally, resulting in q/2 on each.

Applicability: The law was initially established experimentally at a macroscopic scale but has also been verified down to the subatomic level (r ~ 10–10 m).

Defining the Unit of Charge: Coulomb's law can be used to define a unit of charge. In SI units, the proportionality constant 'k' is approximately 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2.

Definition of 1 Coulomb: 1 C is the charge that, when placed at a distance of 1 m from another charge of the same magnitude in vacuum, experiences an electrical force of repulsion of magnitude 9 × 10^9 N. As noted before, 1 C is a very large unit for practical electrostatic purposes.

Permittivity of Free Space: The constant 'k' is often written as k = 1 / (4πε0), where ε0 (epsilon naught) is called the permittivity of free space.

The value of ε0 in SI units is 8.854 × 10–12 C^2 N–1m–2.

Vector Form of Coulomb's Law: The force F21 on charge q2 due to charge q1, where r21 is the vector from q1 to q2 and r̂21 is the unit vector: F21 = (1 / (4πε0)) * (q1 * q2 / r21^2) * r̂21 (Equation 1.3).

This equation holds for any sign of q1 and q2.

If q1 and q2 have the same sign, F21 is along r̂21, indicating repulsion.

If q1 and q2 have opposite signs, F21 is along –r̂21 (or r̂12), indicating attraction.

Newton's Third Law: Coulomb's law is consistent with Newton's third law; F12 (force on q1 due to q2) = -F21 (force on q2 due to q1).

Medium Dependence: Equation (1.3) describes forces in vacuum. The situation becomes more complex when charges are in matter.

Example 1.3: Comparison with Gravitational Force:

Both Coulomb's law and Newton's law of gravitation have an inverse-square dependence on distance.

Electrical forces are enormously stronger than gravitational forces.

For an electron and a proton, the ratio of electric force to gravitational force is approximately 2.4 × 10^39.

For two protons, this ratio is approximately 1.3 × 10^36.

Differences: Gravitational force is always attractive, while Coulomb force can be attractive or repulsive.

Accelerations: Due to electric forces, electrons and protons undergo very large accelerations, making the effect of gravity negligible in such contexts.

1.6 Forces Between Multiple Charges (Principle of Superposition)

The Principle of Superposition: To calculate the force on a charge due to multiple other charges, it is experimentally verified that the total force is the vector sum of all the individual forces exerted by each of the other charges, taken one at a time.

Crucially, the individual forces are unaffected by the presence of other charges.

Vector Addition: If a system has charges q1, q2, q3, ..., qn, the total force F1 on charge q1 is the vector sum: F1 = F12 + F13 + ... + F1n (Equation 1.4, 1.5).

Each individual force (e.g., F12) is given by Coulomb's law, as if only those two charges were present.

Foundation of Electrostatics: All of electrostatics is essentially a consequence of Coulomb's law and the superposition principle.

Example 1.5: For three charges 'q' at the vertices of an equilateral triangle, the force on a charge 'Q' placed at the centroid is zero, due to symmetry and vector summation.

Example 1.6: Calculations show that the sum of forces on three charges (q, q, -q) at the vertices of an equilateral triangle is zero, consistent with Newton's third law.

1.7 Electric Field

Concept Introduction: To explain how a force acts on a charge 'q' placed near a source charge 'Q' even when they are not in contact, the concept of an electric field was introduced.

The source charge 'Q' is said to produce an electric field everywhere in its surrounding. When another charge 'q' is brought into this field, the field acts on it and produces a force.

Definition of Electric Field (E): The electric field E produced by a source charge Q at a point 'r' is defined as the force F exerted by Q on a test charge 'q' placed at 'r', divided by the magnitude of the test charge: E(r) = F(r) / q.

E(r) = (1 / (4πε0)) * (Q / r^2) * r̂ (Equation 1.6).

The SI unit of electric field is N/C (Newtons per Coulomb). An alternative unit, V/m, will be introduced later.

Important Remarks on Electric Field:

If the test charge 'q' is a unit positive charge, the electric field due to 'Q' is numerically equal to the force exerted by 'Q'.

The charge producing the field is the source charge (Q), and the charge used to test the field's effect is the test charge (q).

For the definition to be accurate, the test charge 'q' must be negligibly small so it does not disturb the original configuration of the source charge 'Q'.

The electric field E due to Q is independent of the test charge q, because F is proportional to q, so the ratio F/q is constant.

The electric field E depends on the spatial coordinates (r).

Direction of E:

For a positive source charge Q, the electric field vectors point radially outwards from the charge.

For a negative source charge Q, the electric field vectors point radially inwards.

Spherical Symmetry: The magnitude of E due to a point charge is the same at equal distances from the charge, meaning it has spherical symmetry.

1.7.1 Electric Field due to a System of Charges

For a system of charges (q1, q2, ..., qn) with position vectors (r1, r2, ..., rn), the electric field at any point 'P' is defined as the force experienced by a unit test charge placed at 'P', without disturbing the original positions of the source charges.

By the superposition principle, the total electric field E at point 'r' is the vector sum of the electric fields due to each individual charge: E(r) = E1(r) + E2(r) + ... + En(r) (Equation 1.10).

The electric field E is a vector quantity that varies across space and is determined by the positions of the source charges.

1.7.2 Physical Significance of Electric Field

While not strictly necessary for electrostatics (where force can be found directly from Coulomb's law), the concept of an electric field provides an elegant way to characterize the electrical environment of a system of charges.

The true physical significance becomes apparent in time-dependent electromagnetic phenomena.

The field concept accounts for the time delay in the interaction between distant charges in accelerated motion. An accelerated charge produces electromagnetic waves that propagate at the speed of light to cause a force on another charge.

Electric and magnetic fields are considered physical entities, not just mathematical constructs, possessing their own dynamics and ability to transport energy.

The concept of the field was first introduced by Faraday.

Examples:

Example 1.7 (Electron/Proton in Uniform Electric Field): Computes the time of fall for an electron and proton in a uniform electric field. It shows that the heavier particle (proton) takes longer to fall the same distance, which contrasts with "free fall under gravity" where time is independent of mass. Gravitational effects are negligible compared to electric forces for these particles.

Example 1.8 (Electric Fields from Two Point Charges): Calculates the electric fields at various points (A, B, C) due to two given point charges using vector addition.

1.8 Electric Field Lines

Purpose: Electric field lines are a pictorial way to represent the electric field around a charge configuration.

Representation:

Initially, arrows represented field direction, with length indicating strength.

Now, the magnitude of the field is represented by the density (closeness) of field lines. Where the field is strong, lines are closer; where it's weak, they are spaced apart.

The number of lines drawn is not important; it's the relative density that conveys information.

The density of field lines, defined as number of lines per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the lines, naturally explains the 1/r^2 dependence of the field strength for a point charge.

Historical Note: Invented by Faraday, who called them "lines of force," though "field lines" is the more appropriate modern term.

Definition: An electric field line is a curve drawn such that the tangent to it at each point gives the direction of the net electric field at that point. An arrow indicates the field's direction along the curve. Field lines are generally 3-dimensional space curves.

Common Configurations (Fig. 1.14):

Single positive charge: Field lines are radially outward.

Single negative charge: Field lines are radially inward.

Two positive charges: Field lines visually depict their mutual repulsion.

Electric dipole (equal and opposite charges): Field lines clearly show the mutual attraction between the charges.

Important Properties of Electric Field Lines:

(i) Field lines are continuous curves without any breaks.

(ii) Two field lines can never cross each other. If they did, the field at the intersection point would have multiple directions, which is physically impossible.

(iii) Electrostatic field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If only a single charge is present, they may start or end at infinity.

(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This property arises from the conservative nature of electric fields.

1.9 Electric Flux

Analogy: Electric flux is an analogous quantity to the flow rate of a liquid (volume crossing an area per unit time). However, unlike liquid flow, there is no flow of a physically observable quantity in electric flux.

Definition: In the electric field line picture, the number of field lines crossing a unit area (placed normal to the field) is a measure of the electric field strength.

If a small planar element of area ΔS is placed normal to E, the number of field lines crossing it is proportional to E ΔS.

If the area element is tilted by an angle θ with respect to the field, the flux is proportional to E ΔS cosθ, as it's the projection of the area normal to E. If θ = 90°, the flux is zero.

Area as a Vector: The orientation of an area element is important; thus, an area element should be treated as a vector. Its direction is along its normal.

For a curved surface, it's divided into small planar elements, each with an associated vector.

Convention for Closed Surfaces: For a closed surface, the vector associated with every area element points in the direction of the outward normal.

Mathematical Definition: Electric flux Δφ through an area element ΔS is defined as the dot product of the electric field E and the area vector ΔS: Δφ = E ⋅ ΔS = E ΔS cosθ (Equation 1.11).

Here, θ is the angle between E and ΔS (the outward normal for a closed surface).

Interpretations of E ΔS cosθ: It can be seen as (E) × (projection of area normal to E) or (component of E along the normal to the area element) × (magnitude of the area element).

Unit: The unit of electric flux is N C–1 m^2.

Total Flux: The total flux φ through a surface S is obtained by summing the flux through all small area elements, which, in the limit, becomes an integral: φ = ∫ E ⋅ dS (Equation 1.12, approximated as summation).

1.10 Electric Dipole

Definition: An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges (q and –q) separated by a distance 2a.

Dipole Axis: The line connecting the two charges defines a direction. By convention, the direction of the dipole is from –q to q.

Centre of the Dipole: The mid-point between –q and q.

Total Charge: The total charge of an electric dipole is zero.

Electric Field of a Dipole: Although the total charge is zero, the electric field of a dipole is not zero because the charges are separated.

At distances much larger than the separation (r >> 2a), the fields due to +q and –q nearly cancel, causing the electric field due to a dipole to fall off faster than 1/r^2 (specifically, like 1/r^3).

1.10.1 The Field of an Electric Dipole

Dipole Moment Vector (p): Defined as p = q × 2a p̂ (Equation 1.19).

Its magnitude is 2qa.

Its direction is along the line from –q to q.

Electric Field on the Dipole Axis (for r >> a): At a point 'P' on the axis, on the side of the positive charge: E = (1 / (4πε0)) * (2p / r^3) * p̂ (Equation 1.15, 1.20).

Electric Field on the Equatorial Plane (for r >> a): At a point 'Q' on the equatorial plane (perpendicular to the axis through the centre): E = –(1 / (4πε0)) * (p / r^3) * p̂ (Equation 1.18, 1.21).

The total electric field is opposite to the dipole moment direction (p̂).

The dipole field at large distances depends not only on distance 'r' but also on the angle between the position vector 'r' and the dipole moment 'p'.

Point Dipole: A hypothetical limit where the dipole size (2a) approaches zero and the charge (q) approaches infinity such that the product p = q × 2a remains finite. For a point dipole, the large-distance formulas (Eqs. 1.20 and 1.21) are exact.

1.10.2 Physical Significance of Dipoles

In most molecules (e.g., CO2, CH4), the centers of positive and negative charges coincide, resulting in zero dipole moment. These molecules can develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied.

In some molecules (e.g., H2O), the centers of positive and negative charges do not coincide, giving them a permanent electric dipole moment even without an external electric field. These are called polar molecules.

Example 1.9: Calculates the electric field at points on the axis and on the equatorial plane for a given dipole, demonstrating the application of the derived formulas.

1.11 Dipole in a Uniform External Field

When a permanent electric dipole (dipole moment p) is placed in a uniform external electric field E:

There is a force +qE on the positive charge and -qE on the negative charge.

The net force on the dipole is zero because the field is uniform.

However, since the charges are separated, these forces act at different points, creating a torque on the dipole.

The magnitude of the torque is τ = qE × 2a sinθ = 2qaE sinθ = pE sinθ.

In vector form, the torque is given by the cross product: τ = p × E (Equation 1.22).

This torque tends to align the dipole with the electric field E. The torque is zero when p is aligned with E.

Dipole in a Non-uniform External Field:

If the field is non-uniform, the net force on the dipole will be non-zero.

Additionally, there will generally be a torque.

If the dipole moment p is parallel to E, the dipole experiences a net force in the direction of increasing field.

If p is antiparallel to E, the net force on the dipole is in the direction of decreasing field.

This explains phenomena like a comb run through dry hair attracting pieces of paper: the charged comb's non-uniform field polarizes the neutral paper, inducing a dipole moment, which then experiences a net force, causing the paper to move towards the comb.

1.12 Continuous Charge Distribution

For macroscopic charge configurations, it is impractical to work with discrete charges; instead, continuous charge distributions are used.

This involves defining charge densities over small elements that are microscopically large (containing many electrons) but macroscopically small.

Surface Charge Density (σ): Defined for a surface charge distribution: σ = ΔQ / ΔS (Equation 1.23).

Units: C/m^2.

Represents a smoothed-out average of microscopic charge density.

Linear Charge Density (λ): Defined for a line charge distribution (e.g., a wire): λ = ΔQ / Δl (Equation 1.24).

Units: C/m.

Volume Charge Density (ρ): Defined for a volume charge distribution (also called charge density): ρ = ΔQ / ΔV (Equation 1.25).

Units: C/m^3.

Calculating Electric Field: The electric field due to a continuous charge distribution is obtained by summing (integrating) the contributions from small charge elements (ρΔV) using Coulomb's law and the superposition principle.

1.13 Gauss’s Law

Simple Illustration: For a point charge 'q' at the center of a sphere of radius 'r', the total electric flux (φ) through the sphere is q / ε0 (Equation 1.30).

Statement of Gauss's Law: The total electric flux (φ) through any closed surface (S) is equal to 1/ε0 times the total charge (q) enclosed by that surface: φ = q_enclosed / ε0 (Equation 1.31).

Implications: If no charge is enclosed by a closed surface, the total electric flux through it is zero.

Important Points Regarding Gauss's Law:

(i) It is true for any closed surface, regardless of its shape or size.

(ii) The term 'q' on the right side refers to the sum of all charges located inside the surface.

(iii) The electric field (E) on the left side of the equation (flux calculation) is due to all charges, both inside and outside the surface.

(iv) The surface chosen for applying Gauss's law is called the Gaussian surface. It should not pass through any discrete charges (as the field is undefined there), but it can pass through a continuous charge distribution.

(v) Gauss's law is particularly useful for easily calculating the electrostatic field when the system possesses some symmetry, by choosing a suitable Gaussian surface.

(vi) Gauss's law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance found in Coulomb's law. Any violation of Gauss's law would indicate a departure from the inverse square law.

Examples:

Example 1.10 (Flux and Charge in a Cube): Calculates the net flux through a cube in a non-uniform electric field and then uses Gauss's law to find the enclosed charge.

Example 1.11 (Flux and Charge in a Cylinder): Calculates the net outward flux through a cylinder in a piecewise uniform electric field and then uses Gauss's law to find the net charge inside.

1.14 Applications of Gauss’s Law

Gauss's law simplifies the calculation of electric fields for symmetric charge configurations.

1.14.1 Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire

A wire with uniform linear charge density 'λ'.

Symmetry: The electric field has the same magnitude at points equidistant from the wire and is radially outward (if λ>0) or inward (if λ<0) in the plane normal to the wire. It does not depend on position along the wire's length.

Gaussian Surface: A cylindrical Gaussian surface coaxial with the wire.

Flux Calculation: Flux through the cylinder ends is zero (E is parallel to ends). Flux through the curved cylindrical part is E × (2πrl), where 'l' is the cylinder's length. The enclosed charge is λl.

Resultant Electric Field: E = λ / (2πε0r) * n̂ (Equation 1.32).

Where 'r' is the perpendicular distance from the wire, and 'n̂' is the radial unit vector.

The electric field E is due to the entire wire, not just the enclosed portion. The "infinitely long" assumption is crucial for symmetry, though the formula is approximately true for central portions of a long wire.

1.14.2 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

A plane sheet with uniform surface charge density 'σ'.

Symmetry: The electric field is perpendicular to the plane (e.g., parallel to the x-direction if the plane is yz), and its magnitude does not depend on y or z coordinates, nor on the distance from the plane (x).

Gaussian Surface: A rectangular parallelepiped (or cylinder) with its faces parallel and perpendicular to the sheet.

Flux Calculation: Only the two faces perpendicular to the sheet contribute to the flux (2EA, where A is the cross-sectional area). The enclosed charge is σA.

Resultant Electric Field: E = σ / (2ε0) * n̂ (Equation 1.33).

Where 'n̂' is a unit vector normal to the plane, pointing away from it.

Direction: away from the plate if σ is positive, toward the plate if σ is negative. This formula is approximately true for the middle regions of a large finite planar sheet.

1.14.3 Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

A thin spherical shell of radius 'R' with uniform surface charge density 'σ'.

Symmetry: Spherical symmetry implies the electric field depends only on the radial distance 'r' from the center and is radial.

Gaussian Surface: A spherical surface centered at 'O' passing through the point 'P'.

(i) Field outside the shell (r > R):

Flux through the Gaussian surface (sphere of radius r) is E × 4πr^2.

The charge enclosed is the total charge on the shell, q = σ × 4πR^2.

Resultant Electric Field: E = (1 / (4πε0)) * (q / r^2) * r̂ (Equation 1.34).

This is exactly the field produced by a point charge 'q' placed at the center O.

Direction: outward if q>0, inward if q<0.

(ii) Field inside the shell (r < R):

The Gaussian surface (sphere of radius r inside the shell) encloses no charge.

Resultant Electric Field: E = 0 (Equation 1.35).

This important result is a direct consequence of Gauss's law and the 1/r^2 dependence of Coulomb's law. Experimental verification confirms this dependence.

Example 1.12 (Early Atomic Model): Determines the electric field inside and outside an atom model with a positive point nucleus and a uniform density of negative charge up to radius R.

Inside the atom (r < R), the field is E(r) = (Ze / (4πε0)) * (1/r^2 - r/R^3), directed radially outward.

Outside the atom (r > R), the field is E(r) = 0 because the atom as a whole is neutral, meaning the total enclosed charge is zero.

Summary of Key Concepts (from source's summary)

Electric and magnetic forces determine properties of matter.

Two types of charges: like repel, unlike attract.

Conductors allow charge movement, insulators do not.

Electric charge has three basic properties: quantisation, additivity, and conservation.

Quantisation: Total charge q = ne (n = integer, e = basic quantum).

Additivity: Total charge is algebraic sum of individual charges.

Conservation: Total charge of an isolated system is unchanged over time (transfer, no creation/destruction).

Coulomb's Law: Force between two point charges F ∝ q1q2/r^2.

k = 1/(4πε0) ≈ 9 × 10^9 N m^2 C^–2.

ε0 ≈ 8.854 × 10^–12 C^2 N^–1 m^–2.

Ratio of electric force to gravitational force between proton and electron is ~2.4 × 10^39.

Superposition Principle: Force on a charge due to multiple charges is the vector sum of individual forces, which are unaffected by other charges.

Electric Field (E): Force on a small positive test charge q divided by q.

Magnitude for a point charge q is |q|/4πε0r^2; radially outwards for positive q, inwards for negative q.

Also follows superposition principle.

Electric Field Lines: Curves where the tangent indicates field direction; closeness indicates field strength; start at positive, end at negative; are continuous; never cross; do not form closed loops.

Electric Dipole: Pair of equal and opposite charges ±q separated by 2a.

Dipole moment p has magnitude 2qa, directed from –q to q.

Dipole field falls off as 1/r^3 at large distances, faster than 1/r^2 for a point charge.

Field on axis: E = (1/(4πε0)) * (2p/r^3) (for r>>a).

Field on equatorial plane: E = -(1/(4πε0)) * (p/r^3) (for r>>a).

Dipole in Uniform Field: Experiences a torque τ = p × E but no net force.

Electric Flux (Δφ): Through an area element ΔS is E ⋅ ΔS.

Area element ΔS = ΔS n̂, where n̂ is outward normal for closed surfaces.

Gauss's Law: Total electric flux through any closed surface is q_enclosed / ε0.

Applications:

Infinitely long charged wire: E = λ / (2πε0r) * n̂.

Infinite plane sheet: E = σ / (2ε0) * n̂.

Uniformly charged thin spherical shell:

Outside (r ≥ R): E = (1/(4πε0)) * (q/r^2) * r̂ (as if charge concentrated at center).

Inside (r < R): E = 0.

Points to Ponder

Strong Force: Protons in the nucleus are held together by a third fundamental force, the strong force, which is effective over very small distances (~10^-14 m, nucleus size). Quantum mechanics prevents electrons from residing inside the nucleus.

Coulomb vs. Gravitational Force: Both follow inverse-square law, but gravitational force is always attractive, while Coulomb force can be attractive or repulsive. The possibility of cancellation of electric forces is why gravity, despite being weaker, can be more pervasive.

Unit of Charge (Coulomb): The SI unit of charge (coulomb) is defined via its magnetic effect (Ampere's law). This leads to a large value for 1 C in terms of electric effects because magnetic forces are generally weaker than electric forces.

Additivity of Charge: It's not obvious and relates to charge being a scalar quantity.

Invariance of Charge: Charge is invariant under rotation and for frames of reference in relative motion.

Conservation of Charge: This property is distinct from charge being a scalar; it refers to invariance over time in a given frame.

Quantisation of Mass: There is no analogous law for the quantisation of mass.

Superposition Principle: It states that forces between charges are unaffected by other charges and that there are no additional multi-body forces.

Electric Field Definition: Not defined at the exact locations of discrete charges, but defined for continuous volume charge distributions. For surface charge distributions, the electric field is discontinuous across the surface.

Zero Total Charge Field: A charge configuration with zero total charge (like a dipole) still produces an electric field, but its field falls off faster (1/r^3) at large distances compared to a single charge (1/r^2).

To solidify your understanding of these concepts, imagine the flow of a river.

Electric field lines are like the paths taken by water molecules. Where the river is narrow and the water flows fast, the lines are close together and the force (current) is strong. Where the river widens and slows, the lines spread out, indicating a weaker current.

Electric flux is like the amount of water flowing through a net you dip into the river. If you hold the net perpendicular to the current, you catch the most water (maximum flux). If you hold it parallel to the current, no water passes through (zero flux).

Gauss's Law is like counting all the water sources (charges) within an imaginary, enclosed area in the river. No matter how irregularly shaped your enclosure is, the total amount of water flowing out of it (total flux) will only depend on the sum of all the sources (charges) inside that enclosure, not on anything happening outside or the shape of the enclosure itself.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Common Electrostatic Phenomena: We experience sparks or crackles when taking off synthetic clothes or sweaters, especially in dry weather. Lightning during thunderstorms is another example of electric discharge. Electric shocks can also be felt when opening a car door or holding a bus bar after sliding.
Reason for Phenomena: These experiences are due to the discharge of electric charges accumulated through the rubbing of insulating surfaces.
Static Electricity: This phenomenon is referred to as the generation of static electricity.
Static: Anything that does not move or change with time.
Electrostatics: Deals with the study of forces, fields, and potentials arising from static charges.

1.2 ELECTRIC CHARGE

Historical Discovery: Thales of Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC, discovered that amber rubbed with wool or silk cloth attracts light objects.
Origin of "Electricity": Coined from the Greek word "elektron," meaning amber.
Early Observations: Many pairs of materials, when rubbed (e.g., glass rod with wool/silk, plastic rod with cat's fur), could attract light objects like straw, pith balls, and bits of paper.
Interactions between Charged Objects:
- Two glass rods rubbed with wool/silk repel each other.
- The two pieces of wool/silk with which the rods were rubbed also repel each other.
- A glass rod and wool attract each other.
- Two plastic rods rubbed with cat's fur repel each other but attract the fur.
- A plastic rod attracts a glass rod and repels the silk/wool with which the glass rod was rubbed.
- The glass rod repels the fur.
Conclusion from Experiments: There are only two kinds of electric charge.
Electrified/Charged Bodies: Bodies like glass or plastic rods, silk, fur, and pith balls are said to be electrified or charged when they acquire an electric charge on rubbing.
Fundamental Rule of Charges:
- (i) Like charges repel.
- (ii) Unlike charges attract each other.
Polarity of Charge: The property that differentiates the two kinds of charges.
Neutralization of Charges: When an electrified glass rod is brought into contact with the silk it was rubbed with, they no longer attract each other or other light objects. This indicates that unlike charges acquired by objects neutralize or nullify each other's effect.
Naming of Charges: The charges were named positive and negative by the American scientist Benjamin Franklin.
Charge Convention: By convention, the charge on a glass rod or cat's fur is called positive, and that on a plastic rod or silk is termed negative.
Electrically Neutral: An object is electrically neutral when it has no net charge.
Microscopic Basis of Charge:
- All matter is made of atoms and/or molecules.
- Normally, materials are electrically neutral because their positive and negative charges are exactly balanced.
- Electric force is fundamental and pervasive, underlying forces like those holding molecules together, atoms in solids, adhesive force of glue, and surface tension.
Mechanism of Electrification:
- To electrify a neutral body, one must add or remove one kind of charge.
- In solids, electrons are transferred from one body to another because they are less tightly bound in the atom.
- A body becomes positively charged by losing electrons.
- A body becomes negatively charged by gaining electrons.
- Example: When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, electrons transfer from the rod to the silk. The rod becomes positively charged, and the silk becomes negatively charged.
- Conservation during Rubbing: No new charge is created or destroyed during rubbing; charges are only transferred.
- The number of electrons transferred is a very small fraction of the total electrons in the material body.

1.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors:
- Substances that readily allow the passage of electricity through them.
- They have electric charges (electrons) that are comparatively free to move inside the material.
- Examples: Metals, human and animal bodies, and the Earth.
Insulators:
- Substances that offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through them.
- Examples: Most non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, and wood.
Semiconductors: A third category that offers resistance to charge movement intermediate between conductors and insulators.
Charge Distribution on Conductors vs. Insulators:
- On a conductor, transferred charge readily gets distributed over the entire surface.
- On an insulator, transferred charge stays at the same place where it was put.
Practical Example: A nylon or plastic comb gets electrified on combing dry hair because charges stay on it. A metal article like a spoon does not, because charges leak through our body to the ground (both are conductors). However, a metal rod with a wooden/plastic handle can be charged if its metal part is not touched during rubbing, preventing charge leakage.

1.4 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

Point Charges: Charged bodies are treated as point charges if their sizes are very small compared to the distances between them, and all their charge content is assumed to be concentrated at one point.

1.4.1 Additivity of Charges

Definition: The total charge of a system containing multiple point charges (q1, q2, ..., qn) is obtained by algebraically adding the individual charges.
Nature: Charges add up like real numbers; they are scalars (like mass).
Formula: Q_total = q1 + q2 + q3 + … + qn.
Key Difference from Mass: Mass of a body is always positive, whereas a charge can be either positive or negative. Proper signs must be used when adding charges.
Example: Total charge of (+1) + (+2) + (–3) + (+4) + (–5) = –1 in some arbitrary unit.

1.4.2 Charge is Conserved

Definition: When bodies are charged by rubbing, there is transfer of electrons; no new charges are either created or destroyed.
Isolated System: Within an isolated system consisting of many charged bodies, charges may get redistributed due to interactions, but the total charge of the isolated system is always conserved.
Experimental Basis: Conservation of charge has been established experimentally.
Creation/Destruction of Particles: It is not possible to create or destroy the net charge carried by any isolated system, even if charge-carrying particles are created or destroyed (e.g., neutron turning into a proton and an electron, where the created proton and electron have equal and opposite charges, maintaining zero total charge).

1.4.3 Quantisation of Charge

Definition: All free charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, denoted by 'e'.
Formula: q = ne, where 'n' is any integer (positive or negative: 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...).
Basic Unit 'e': This basic unit of charge is the charge carried by an electron or a proton.
Convention: Charge on an electron is –e, and on a proton is +e.
Historical Context: First suggested by Faraday's experimental laws of electrolysis and experimentally demonstrated by Millikan in 1912.
SI Unit of Charge: Coulomb (C).
Definition of Coulomb: One coulomb (C) is the charge flowing through a wire in 1 second if the current is 1 Ampere (A).
Value of 'e': e = 1.602192 × 10^-19 C.
Magnitude of Coulomb: There are about 6 × 10^18 electrons in a charge of –1C.
Practical Units: Coulomb is a very large unit for electrostatics; smaller units like 1 mC (micro coulomb) = 10^-6 C or 1 mC (milli coulomb) = 10^-3 C are commonly used.
Charge on a Body: If a body contains n1 electrons and n2 protons, the total charge is (n2 - n1)e. Since n1 and n2 are integers, the net charge is always an integral multiple of 'e'.
Macroscopic vs. Microscopic Quantisation:
- Macroscopic Level: The step size 'e' is very small. When dealing with charges of a few mC, which are enormous compared to 'e' (~10^13 times electronic charge for 1 mC), the grainy nature of charge is lost, and it appears to be continuous. Quantisation can be ignored.
- Microscopic Level: Where charges are of the order of a few tens or hundreds of 'e', they appear in discrete lumps, and quantisation cannot be ignored.

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

Example 1.1: If 10^9 electrons move out of a body to another body every second, how much time is required to get a total charge of 1 C on the other body?
- Solution:
  - Charge transferred per second = (10^9 electrons/s) × (1.6 × 10^-19 C/electron) = 1.6 × 10^-10 C/s.
  - Time required to accumulate 1 C = (1 C) / (1.6 × 10^-10 C/s) = 6.25 × 10^9 s.
  - Converting to years: 6.25 × 10^9 s / (365 × 24 × 3600 s/year) ≈ 198 years.
  - Conclusion: One coulomb is a very large unit for many practical purposes.
Example 1.2: How much positive and negative charge is there in a cup of water?
- Solution:
  - Assume mass of one cup of water = 250 g.
  - Molecular mass of water (H2O) = 18 g.
  - Number of molecules in one cup of water = (250 g / 18 g/mol) × (6.02 × 10^23 molecules/mol).
  - Each water molecule (H2O) has 2 H atoms (1 proton each) + 1 O atom (8 protons). So, 10 protons and 10 electrons.
  - Total positive charge = (Number of molecules) × (10 protons/molecule) × (1.6 × 10^-19 C/proton).
  - Total positive charge = (250/18) × 6.02 × 10^23 × 10 × 1.6 × 10^-19 C = 1.34 × 10^7 C.
  - The total negative charge has the same magnitude.

1.5 COULOMB’S LAW

Definition: A quantitative statement about the force between two point charges.
Conditions: Applicable when the linear size of charged bodies is much smaller than the distance separating them (treated as point charges).
Experimental Findings (Coulomb's Observations):
- Force (F) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between the charges.
- Force (F) is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges (q1, q2).
- Force acts along the line joining the two charges.
Mathematical Form (Magnitude):
- F = k * |q1q2| / r^2 (for charges in vacuum).
Coulomb's Experiment: Used a torsion balance to measure force. He achieved known fractions of charge (q/2, q/4, etc.) by touching a charged metallic sphere with identical uncharged spheres (based on charge additivity and conservation).
Validity Range: Established experimentally at macroscopic scales and confirmed down to subatomic levels (r ~ 10^-10 m).
Constant 'k':
- Its choice determines the size of the unit of charge.
- In SI units, k ≈ 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2.
Definition of 1 Coulomb from Coulomb's Law: 1 C is the charge that, when placed 1 m from another identical charge in vacuum, experiences an electrical force of repulsion of magnitude 9 × 10^9 N. This confirms 1C is a very large unit for practical electrostatics.
Permittivity of Free Space (ε0):
- The constant 'k' is often written as k = 1/(4πε0) for later convenience.
- Coulomb's Law (Revised Magnitude): F = (1/(4πε0)) * |q1q2| / r^2.
- Value of ε0 in SI units: ε0 = 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2.
Vector Form of Coulomb's Law:
- Let r1 and r2 be position vectors of q1 and q2.
- r21 = r2 - r1 (vector from 1 to 2).
- r12 = r1 - r2 = -r21 (vector from 2 to 1).
- Unit vectors: r̂21 = r21/r21, r̂12 = r12/r12 = -r̂21.
- Force on q2 due to q1 (F21): F21 = (1/(4πε0)) * (q1q2/r21^2) * r̂21.
Remarks on Vector Form:
- Equation (1.3) is valid for any sign of q1 and q2.
- If q1q2 > 0 (like charges), F21 is along r̂21, indicating repulsion.
- If q1q2 < 0 (unlike charges), F21 is along -r̂21 (= r̂12), indicating attraction.
- Agrees with Newton's Third Law: F12 = -F21.
- This form is for charges in vacuum. Presence of matter complicates it.

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

Example 1.3: Compare electrostatic and gravitational forces for (i) electron and proton, (ii) two protons. Estimate accelerations of electron and proton due to mutual electric force at 1 Å separation.
- Solution (a) Comparison of strengths:
  - (i) Electron and Proton (attractive forces):
    - Electric force: Fe = (1/(4πε0)) * e^2 / r^2
    - Gravitational force: Fg = G * me*mp / r^2
    - Ratio Fe/Fg = (1/(4πε0)) * e^2 / (G * me*mp) ≈ 2.4 × 10^39.
  - (ii) Two Protons (gravitational attractive, Coulomb repulsive):
    - Ratio Fe/Fg = (1/(4πε0)) * e^2 / (G * mp^2) ≈ 1.3 × 10^36.
  - Conclusion: Electrical forces are enormously stronger than gravitational forces.
- Solution (b) Accelerations at 1 Å (10^-10 m):
  - Magnitude of electric force |F| = (1/(4πε0)) * e^2 / r^2.
  - |F| = (8.987 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2) × (1.6 × 10^-19 C)^2 / (10^-10 m)^2 = 2.3 × 10^-8 N.
  - Acceleration of electron (ae) = |F| / me = (2.3 × 10^-8 N) / (9.11 × 10^-31 kg) = 2.5 × 10^22 m/s^2.
  - Acceleration of proton (ap) = |F| / mp = (2.3 × 10^-8 N) / (1.67 × 10^-27 kg) = 1.4 × 10^19 m/s^2.
  - Justification for ignoring gravity: These accelerations are enormous compared to g (9.8 m/s^2), so gravity's effect is negligible.
Example 1.4: A charged sphere A suspended, sphere B brought close (10 cm). A and B are touched by identical uncharged spheres C and D respectively, then C and D removed. B is brought to 5.0 cm from A. What is the expected repulsion of A on the basis of Coulomb’s law?
- Solution:
  - Initial force F = (1/(4πε0)) * q*q' / r^2.
  - When C touches A, charge on A becomes q/2.
  - When D touches B, charge on B becomes q'/2.
  - New separation r' = r/2.
  - New force F' = (1/(4πε0)) * (q/2)(q'/2) / (r/2)^2 = (1/(4πε0)) * (qq'/4) / (r^2/4) = (1/(4πε0)) * qq' / r^2.
  - Conclusion: The electrostatic force on A due to B remains unaltered (F' = F).

1.6 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES

Problem: How to calculate the force on a charge when several other charges are present? Coulomb's law alone is insufficient.
Principle of Superposition:
- Statement: The force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time.
- Key Property: The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of other charges.
Application (System of 3 Charges q1, q2, q3):
- Force on q1 due to q2 (F12) is given by Coulomb's law as if q3 isn't present.
- F12 = (1/(4πε0)) * (q1q2/r12^2) * r̂12.
- Force on q1 due to q3 (F13) is given by Coulomb's law as if q2 isn't present.
- F13 = (1/(4πε0)) * (q1q3/r13^2) * r̂13.
- Total force F1 = F12 + F13 (vector sum).
Generalization (System of n Charges):
- Total force F1 on q1 = F12 + F13 + ... + F1n (vector sum).
- F1 = (1/(4πε0)) * Σ [ (q1qi / r1i^2) * r̂1i ] (from i=2 to n).
Foundation of Electrostatics: All of electrostatics is basically a consequence of Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle.

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

Example 1.5: Consider three charges q1, q2, q3 each equal to q at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side l. What is the force on a charge Q (same sign as q) placed at the centroid of the triangle?
- Solution:
  - Distance from centroid O to each vertex (A, B, C) = AO = BO = CO = l/√3.
  - Force F1 on Q due to q at A: F1 = (1/(4πε0)) * Qq / (l/√3)^2 = (3Qq / (4πε0l^2)) along AO.
  - Similarly, F2 along BO, and F3 along CO, all with the same magnitude.
  - By symmetry, the three forces are equal in magnitude and separated by 120 degrees from each other. Their vector sum is zero.
  - Alternatively, the resultant of F2 and F3 is a force of magnitude (3Qq / (4πε0l^2)) along OA, which is opposite and equal to F1.
Example 1.6: Consider the charges q, q, and –q placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. What is the force on each charge?
- Solution:
  - Let the vertices be A(q), B(q), C(-q).
  - Magnitude of force between any pair of charges = F = q^2 / (4πε0l^2).
  - Force on charge q at A (F1):
    - F_AB (repulsive from B) along BA.
    - F_AC (attractive from C) along AC.
    - Since it's an equilateral triangle, the angle between F_AB and F_AC is 60 degrees.
    - Using vector addition (parallelogram law or components), the resultant F1 will be directed along BC and its magnitude will be F * sqrt(1^2+1^2+211*cos(60)) = F * sqrt(3). (Note: The text states F1 = F * r̂1 where r̂1 is along BC, implying F itself, which is potentially a simplification or a typo. The resultant force for two equal vectors at 60 degrees is √3 times the magnitude of one vector. However, the exact calculation here requires using components. The text simplifies this to F1 = F r̂1, which implies F1 has magnitude F, and is along BC. This needs careful attention from the reader, as a direct parallelogram law would give a larger magnitude. Let's assume the text implies that F1 is the magnitude of resultant force and then points to the general direction.)
    - Let's re-evaluate for clarity: F12 (on A due to B) is repulsive, along BA. F13 (on A due to C) is attractive, along AC. Angle between BA and AC is 60 degrees (if we consider internal angles and directions carefully).
    - The text gives F1 = F r̂1. This seems to mean the magnitude is F, and the direction is along BC. This might arise if using specific vector components.
  - Force on charge q at B (F2):
    - F_BA (repulsive from A) along AB.
    - F_BC (attractive from C) along CB.
    - F2 = F r̂2 where r̂2 is along AC.
  - Force on charge –q at C (F3):
    - F_CA (attractive from A) along CA.
    - F_CB (attractive from B) along CB.
    - F3 = √3 F along the direction bisecting angle BCA, away from the triangle (pointing down if triangle base is BC).
  - Total Force: The sum of forces on the three charges (F1 + F2 + F3) is zero. This is consistent with Newton's third law (internal forces sum to zero).

1.7 ELECTRIC FIELD

The Concept of Field:
- When a charge Q is placed, it produces an electric field everywhere in the surrounding space.
- When another charge q is brought to a point P, the field at P acts on q and produces a force.
Electric Field (E) due to a Point Charge Q:
- Definition: The electric field produced by a source charge Q at a point r is the force per unit positive test charge placed at that point.
- Formula: E(r) = (1/(4πε0)) * (Q/r^2) * r̂.
  - r̂ = r/r (unit vector from origin/Q to point r).
Relationship between Force (F) and Electric Field (E):
- F(r) = q E(r).
- This equation means the force experienced by a charge q at a point r is equal to the charge q multiplied by the electric field E at that location.
SI Unit of Electric Field: N/C (Newton per Coulomb). (An alternate unit V/m will be introduced later).
Important Remarks on Electric Field:
- (i) Operational Definition: If q is unity, E is numerically equal to the force. The electric field due to Q at a point is defined as the force that a unit positive charge would experience if placed at that point.
- Source Charge (Q): The charge producing the electric field.
- Test Charge (q): The charge used to test the effect of a source charge.
- Condition for Test Charge: Must be negligibly small to not disturb the source charge Q.
- Formal Definition: E = lim (q→0) F/q.
- (ii) Independence of Test Charge: E due to Q, though operationally defined using q, is independent of q because F is proportional to q, so the ratio F/q is constant.
- Spatial Dependence: E due to Q is dependent on the space coordinate r (it varies from point to point). The field exists at every point in 3D space.
- (iii) Direction of E:
  - For a positive source charge Q, the electric field is directed radially outwards from the charge.
  - For a negative source charge Q, the electric field vector points radially inwards.
- (iv) Spherical Symmetry: The magnitude of E due to a point charge Q depends only on the distance 'r'. Thus, E has the same magnitude on a sphere with the point charge at its center, indicating spherical symmetry.

1.7.1 Electric field due to a system of charges

Definition: The electric field at a point P due to a system of charges (q1, q2, ..., qn) is the force experienced by a unit test charge placed at P, without disturbing the original positions of the source charges.
Method: Use Coulomb's law and the superposition principle.
Individual Fields:
- E1 at r due to q1 at r1: E1 = (1/(4πε0)) * (q1/r1P^2) * r̂1P.
- E2 at r due to q2 at r2: E2 = (1/(4πε0)) * (q2/r2P^2) * r̂2P.
- (Similar for E3, ..., En).
Total Electric Field: The vector sum of the individual electric fields.
- E(r) = E1(r) + E2(r) + ... + En(r).
- E(r) = (1/(4πε0)) * Σ [ (qi / r_iP^2) * r̂_iP ] (from i=1 to n).
E is a vector quantity that varies from point to point in space.

1.7.2 Physical significance of electric field

Convenience in Electrostatics: The concept of electric field is convenient for characterizing the electrical environment of charges, even though forces can be directly calculated.
Beyond Electrostatics (True Significance):
- Emerges when dealing with time-dependent electromagnetic phenomena.
- Addresses the issue of time delay in force propagation: When charge q1 moves, its effect on q2 cannot be instantaneous (max speed is 'c').
- Field Picture: Accelerated motion of q1 produces electromagnetic waves that propagate at speed 'c', reach q2, and then cause a force. The field accounts for this time delay.
- Physical Entities: Electric and magnetic fields are regarded as physical entities, not merely mathematical constructs, as they have their own independent dynamics and can transport energy.
- Origin: The concept was first introduced by Faraday and is now a central concept in physics.

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

Example 1.7: An electron falls 1.5 cm in a uniform upward electric field (2.0 × 10^4 N/C). The field direction is reversed, and a proton falls the same distance. Compute the time of fall in each case. Contrast with free fall under gravity.
- Solution:
  - Electron (Field upward, force downward):
    - Force on electron: Fe = eE.
    - Acceleration of electron: ae = Fe / me = eE / me.
    - Time of fall (h = 1/2 at^2, starting from rest): te = √(2h/ae) = √(2h*me / eE).
    - Substitute values (e=1.6e-19C, me=9.11e-31kg, E=2.0e4 N/C, h=1.5e-2m):
    - te = √( (2 * 1.5e-2 * 9.11e-31) / (1.6e-19 * 2.0e4) ) = 2.9 × 10^-9 s.
  - Proton (Field downward, force downward):
    - Force on proton: Fp = eE.
    - Acceleration of proton: ap = Fp / mp = eE / mp.
    - Time of fall: tp = √(2h/ap) = √(2h*mp / eE).
    - Substitute values (mp=1.67e-27kg):
    - tp = √( (2 * 1.5e-2 * 1.67e-27) / (1.6e-19 * 2.0e4) ) = 1.3 × 10^-7 s.
  - Contrast with Free Fall under Gravity:
    - In an electric field, time of fall depends on the mass of the particle (heavier proton takes longer).
    - In free fall under gravity (ignoring air resistance), the time of fall is independent of the mass of the body.
    - Justification for ignoring gravity: Calculate proton's acceleration due to E: ap = (1.6e-19 * 2.0e4) / 1.67e-27 = 1.9 × 10^12 m/s^2 (typo in text, calculated as 1.9e12, but text says 1.9e10 which is still very large). This is enormous compared to g (9.8 m/s^2), so gravity is negligible. Electron's acceleration is even greater.
Example 1.8: Two point charges q1=+10^-8 C and q2=-10^-8 C are 0.1 m apart. Calculate electric fields at points A, B, and C as shown in Fig. 1.11 (A is midpoint of q1-q2, B is 0.05m right of q2, C is 0.1m above midpoint).
- Solution:
  - q1 = +10^-8 C, q2 = -10^-8 C. Separation = 0.1 m.
  - Point A (midpoint, 0.05 m from each):
    - E1A (due to q1) = (9e9 * 10^-8) / (0.05)^2 = 3.6 × 10^4 N/C (right, away from q1).
    - E2A (due to q2) = (9e9 * |-10^-8|) / (0.05)^2 = 3.6 × 10^4 N/C (right, towards q2).
    - EA = E1A + E2A = 3.6e4 + 3.6e4 = 7.2 × 10^4 N/C (directed toward the right).
  - Point B (0.05 m right of q2):
    - Distance from q1 to B = 0.1 + 0.05 = 0.15 m.
    - Distance from q2 to B = 0.05 m.
    - E1B (due to q1) = (9e9 * 10^-8) / (0.15)^2 = 4 × 10^3 N/C (left, away from q1).
    - E2B (due to q2) = (9e9 * |-10^-8|) / (0.05)^2 = 3.6 × 10^4 N/C (left, towards q2).
    - EB = E1B + E2B = 4e3 + 3.6e4 = 4.0 × 10^4 N/C (directed toward the left) (Error in text: E1B is left, E2B is left, so they should add. The text says EB = E1B - E2B which implies opposite directions. Let's re-evaluate. E1B points LEFT (away from +q1). E2B points LEFT (towards -q2). So they add up. The text value is 3.2e4, implying subtraction. This means the text defined directions for E1B and E2B differently. If E1B is taken as 3.6e4 (error in text) and E2B is 4e3, then 3.6e4 - 4e3 = 3.2e4. Let's stick to the text's calculated numbers while noting the direction implication. From the diagram, B is to the right of q2. E1B (from q1) would be to the right. E2B (from q2) would be to the left. Yes, they are opposite. So E1B is from q1 at 0.1m to B at 0.15m. So q1 is at origin. q2 at 0.1m. A at 0.05m. B at 0.15m. E1B at B due to q1: (9e910-8)/(0.15)^2 = 4e3 N/C. Direction is Right (away from positive q1). E2B at B due to q2: (9e910-8)/(0.05)^2 = 3.6e4 N/C. Direction is Left (towards negative q2). So EB = 3.6e4 - 4e3 = 3.2e4 N/C. Direction is left (dominant E2B). Text is correct.)
  - Point C (0.1 m above midpoint):
    - Point C forms an equilateral triangle with q1 and q2 (since distance is 0.1m from each charge, and distance between q1 and q2 is 0.1m).
    - Distance from q1 to C and q2 to C = r_C = √( (0.05)^2 + (0.1)^2 ) = √(0.0025 + 0.01) = √0.0125 ≈ 0.1118 m (Error in text: it uses 0.10 m for distance to calculate E. Let's assume the question means C is at a distance of 0.1m from each charge, implying an equilateral triangle configuration. If it's above the center, it's not equidistant in that sense. Assuming it's at (0, 0.1, 0) and charges are at (0, 0, -0.05) and (0, 0, +0.05) for simpler calculation, then distance from C to q1/q2 would be sqrt(0.05^2+0.1^2) = sqrt(0.0125). However, the diagram for 1.11 shows C to be equidistant from q1 and q2, forming an isosceles triangle with base 0.1m. The text states 0.10m for calculation, so assume the points q1, q2 and C form an equilateral triangle of side 0.1m.)
    - Magnitude E1C (due to q1) = E2C (due to q2) = (9e9 * 10^-8) / (0.1)^2 = 9 × 10^3 N/C.
    - E1C points away from q1, E2C points towards q2. The vertical components cancel, and horizontal components add up.
    - Angle of each vector with horizontal axis is 60 degrees (due to equilateral triangle).
    - EC = E1C cos(60°) + E2C cos(60°) = 2 * (9e3) * (1/2) = 9 × 10^3 N/C.
    - EC points towards the right. (The text has a typo: 1 2cos cos 3 3 π π = +C c cE E E = 9 × 10^3 N C–1. The angle is 60 degrees, not pi/3 directly used in calculation for sum. It should be 2 * E_mag * cos(theta_with_resultant_direction). The individual vectors E1C and E2C are at 60 degrees from the horizontal passing through C. So their horizontal components are E1C cos(60) and E2C cos(60), both to the right. EC = 2 * 9e3 * 0.5 = 9e3 N/C).

1.8 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Purpose: A pictorial way to represent an electric field.
Method: Draw vectors representing E at various points (lengths proportional to field strength, direction along E). Connect arrows pointing in one direction to form field lines.
Information Conveyed by Field Lines:
- Direction: The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of the net electric field at that point. An arrow on the line specifies the direction.
- Magnitude/Strength: The relative density (closeness) of field lines indicates the relative strength of the electric field.
  - Crowded lines: Strong field.
  - Spaced apart lines: Weak field.
Quantitative Interpretation of Density:
- The number of field lines crossing a unit cross-sectional area, perpendicular to the lines, is a measure of E.
- For a point charge, E decreases as 1/r^2. The area enclosing the charge increases as r^2 (e.g., surface of a sphere 4πr^2). Thus, the number of field lines crossing the enclosing area remains constant, regardless of distance.
- This is consistent with the solid angle concept: in a given solid angle, the number of radial field lines is the same, and the area subtending that angle is proportional to r^2. Thus, field line density (lines/area) is proportional to 1/r^2, matching E.
Origin: Invented by Faraday (called "lines of force," but "field lines" is more appropriate).
Properties of Electric Field Lines:
- (i) Continuity: Field lines are continuous curves without any breaks.
- (ii) Non-Crossing: Two field lines can never cross each other. If they did, the field at the intersection point would have two different directions, which is physically impossible.
- (iii) Origin and Termination: Electrostatic field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there is a single charge, they may start or end at infinity.
- (iv) No Closed Loops: Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This property follows from the conservative nature of the electric field (meaning work done moving a charge around a closed loop is zero).
Visual Examples (Fig. 1.14):
- Single positive charge: radially outward lines.
- Single negative charge: radially inward lines.
- Two positive charges: lines show mutual repulsion (lines bend away from each other).
- Electric dipole (equal and opposite charges): lines show mutual attraction (lines go from positive to negative, forming curved paths).

1.9 ELECTRIC FLUX

Analogy: Flow of a liquid through a surface (rate of flow = volume crossing per unit time).
Liquid Flux: If velocity is v and surface area is dS normal to v, flux = v dS. If dS makes angle θ with v, flux = v dS cosθ = v . n̂ dS (where n̂ is normal to dS).
Electric Flux (Φ): An analogous quantity for electric fields, though there is no physical flow of an observable quantity like liquid.
Definition: In the field line picture, the number of field lines crossing a unit area placed normal to the field at a point is a measure of the strength of the electric field (E).
Flux and Field Strength: If a small planar element of area ΔS is normal to E, the number of field lines crossing it is proportional to E ΔS. If the area is tilted by angle θ, the projected area normal to E is ΔS cosθ, so flux is proportional to E ΔS cosθ.
- If θ = 90°, field lines are parallel to ΔS, and flux is zero.
Area Element as a Vector:
- The orientation of an area element is important (e.g., water through a ring).
- An area element should be treated as a vector (ΔS), having both magnitude and direction.
- The direction of a planar area vector is along its normal.
- For a curved surface, it's divided into many small planar elements, each with an associated vector.
Convention for Closed Surfaces: For a closed surface, the vector associated with every area element (ΔS) is taken to be in the direction of the outward normal (n̂). So, ΔS = ΔS n̂.
Definition of Electric Flux (ΔΦ) through an Area Element:
- ΔΦ = E . ΔS = E ΔS cosθ.
- θ is the angle between the electric field E and the area vector ΔS (or the outward normal n̂ for a closed surface).
Interpretations of E ΔS cosθ:
- E (ΔS cosθ): E times the projection of the area normal to E.
- (E cosθ) ΔS: Component of E along the normal to the area element, times the magnitude of the area element.
Unit of Electric Flux: N C^-1 m^2.
Total Flux (Φ) through a Surface S:
- Calculated by dividing the surface into small area elements, calculating flux for each, and adding them up.
- Φ ≈ Σ E . ΔS.
- Mathematically exact as an integral: Φ = ∫ E . dS (when ΔS → 0).

1.10 ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Definition: An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges (q and –q) separated by a distance 2a.
Dipole Axis: The line connecting the two charges.
Direction of Dipole: By convention, the direction from –q to q.
Centre of Dipole: The mid-point of the locations of –q and q.
Total Charge: The total charge of an electric dipole is obviously zero.
Electric Field of Dipole: Not zero, as the charges are separated.
Distance Dependence: At distances much larger than the separation (r >> 2a), the fields due to q and –q nearly cancel. The electric field due to a dipole therefore falls off faster than 1/r^2 (the dependence of a single charge field), specifically as 1/r^3.

1.10.1 The field of an electric dipole

Calculated using Coulomb's law and superposition principle.
(i) For points on the axis:
- Point P at distance 'r' from the center of the dipole, on the side of charge q (along +p̂ direction).
- Electric field due to -q at P: E-q = - (q / (4πε0(r+a)^2)) p̂.
- Electric field due to +q at P: E+q = + (q / (4πε0(r-a)^2)) p̂.
- Total field E = E+q + E-q = (q / (4πε0)) * [ (1/(r-a)^2) - (1/(r+a)^2) ] p̂.
- Simplified: E = (q / (4πε0)) * (4ar / (r^2-a^2)^2) p̂.
- For r >> a (far field approximation): E_axis = (1/(4πε0)) * (2qa/r^3) p̂.
(ii) For points on the equatorial plane:
- Point P at distance 'r' from the center of the dipole, perpendicular to the axis.
- Magnitudes of electric fields due to +q and -q are equal: E+q = E-q = (q / (4πε0(r^2+a^2))).
- Components normal to the dipole axis cancel. Components along the dipole axis add up.
- The total electric field is opposite to p̂.
- E_equatorial = - (E+q cosθ + E-q cosθ) p̂ (where cosθ = a / √(r^2+a^2)).
- E_equatorial = - (1/(4πε0)) * (2qa / (r^2+a^2)^(3/2)) p̂.
- For r >> a (far field approximation): E_equatorial = - (1/(4πε0)) * (qa/r^3) p̂.
Dipole Moment Vector (p):
- Definition: p = q × 2a p̂.
- Magnitude: p = q × 2a (charge q times the separation 2a).
- Direction: Along the line from –q to q.
- SI Unit: Coulomb-meter (C m).
Electric Field in terms of Dipole Moment (p) for r >> a:
- On the dipole axis: E_axis = (1/(4πε0)) * (2p/r^3).
- On the equatorial plane: E_equatorial = - (1/(4πε0)) * (p/r^3).
Key Characteristic: The dipole field at large distances falls off as 1/r^3, in contrast to the 1/r^2 dependence for a single point charge. The direction and magnitude also depend on the angle between the position vector and dipole moment.
Point Dipole: Limit where 2a approaches zero and q approaches infinity such that p = q × 2a is finite. For a point dipole, the 1/r^3 formulas are exact for any r.

1.10.2 Physical significance of dipoles

Nonpolar Molecules: Most molecules (e.g., CO2, CH4) have their centers of positive and negative charges at the same place, resulting in zero permanent dipole moment. They develop an induced dipole moment when an electric field is applied.
Polar Molecules: Some molecules (e.g., H2O) have centers of negative and positive charges that do not coincide, giving them a permanent electric dipole moment even without an external field.

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

Example 1.9: Two charges ±10 mC are 5.0 mm apart. Determine the electric field at (a) point P on the axis 15 cm away from the center (on +ve charge side) and (b) point Q on the equatorial line 15 cm away from the center.
- Given: q = 10 μC = 10^-5 C, 2a = 5.0 mm = 5.0 × 10^-3 m, a = 2.5 × 10^-3 m.
- Dipole moment p = q * 2a = (10^-5 C) * (5.0 × 10^-3 m) = 5.0 × 10^-8 C m.
- Distance r = 15 cm = 0.15 m.
- Here r >> a (0.15 m >> 0.0025 m), so the approximate formulas can be used.
- Solution (a) Point P on the axis:
  - Using the exact formula:
    - E+q (from +q at 0.15-0.0025 = 0.1475m) = (9e9 * 10^-5) / (0.1475)^2 = 4.13 × 10^6 N/C (along BP, away from +q).
    - E-q (from -q at 0.15+0.0025 = 0.1525m) = (9e9 * 10^-5) / (0.1525)^2 = 3.86 × 10^6 N/C (along PA, towards -q).
    - Resultant electric field at P = E+q - E-q = 4.13e6 - 3.86e6 = 2.7 × 10^5 N/C along BP (direction of +q to -q, i.e., from B to A in the text's coordinate system of Fig 1.18(a)). The text states BP, implying direction from B to P which is away from B. So, if A is at -a and B is at +a, then P is at +r. The dipole moment is from A to B. E+q is away from B, E-q is towards A. E+q is in +x direction. E-q is in -x direction. No. If P is on the side of the positive charge, it's (r-a) for +q and (r+a) for -q. The field from +q is stronger and in the direction of the dipole moment. The field from -q is weaker and in the opposite direction. So the resultant will be in the direction of the dipole moment. The text diagram seems to have A at -a and B at +a. P is on the right of B. E from +q (at B) is right. E from -q (at A) is left. E_P = E_B - E_A.
    - Let's re-verify from the text's Figure 1.18(a). Charges are at A and B. P is to the right of B. Let B be at +a and A at -a. So dipole moment is from A to B (left to right).
    - E from +10uC at B (E_B) is to the right, |E_B| = k*q/(r-a)^2.
    - E from -10uC at A (E_A) is to the right, |E_A| = k*q/(r+a)^2. (Wait, E from -q is towards -q. So it's to the left).
    - So E_net = E_B - E_A. The text is right. My interpretation of the relative positions was mixed.
    - Using the approximate formula for r >> a:
    - E = (1/(4πε0)) * (2p/r^3) = (9 × 10^9) * (2 * 5 × 10^-8) / (0.15)^3 = 2.6 × 10^5 N/C (along the dipole moment direction AB). This is close to the exact calculation.
- Solution (b) Point Q on the equatorial plane:
  - Distance from Q to A or B = √(r^2 + a^2) = √((0.15)^2 + (0.0025)^2) = 0.1500208 m. (Text uses [15 (0.25)]^2 which is (15)^2 + (0.25)^2. This should be 15cm, 0.25cm. So r=0.15m, a=0.0025m. Text calculation (15)^2 + (0.25)^2 is in cm. Let's use m consistently as above.)
  - E+q (from +10uC at B) = (9e9 * 10^-5) / (0.1500208)^2 = 3.999 × 10^6 N/C (along BQ).
  - E-q (from -10uC at A) = (9e9 * 10^-5) / (0.1500208)^2 = 3.999 × 10^6 N/C (along QA).
  - The vertical components (perpendicular to axis) cancel. The horizontal components (parallel to axis, opposite to dipole moment) add up.
  - cosθ = a / √(r^2 + a^2) = 0.0025 / 0.1500208 ≈ 0.01666.
  - Resultant electric field at Q = 2 * E_magnitude * cosθ (and direction is opposite to p̂).
  - E = 2 * (3.999 × 10^6 N/C) * (0.0025 / 0.1500208) = 1.33 × 10^5 N/C (along BA) (opposite to dipole moment AB).
  - Using the approximate formula for r >> a:
  - E = (1/(4πε0)) * (p/r^3) = (9 × 10^9) * (5 × 10^-8) / (0.15)^3 = 1.33 × 10^5 N/C (opposite to the dipole moment vector). This matches.

1.11 DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

Setup: A permanent electric dipole with dipole moment p placed in a uniform external electric field E.
Net Force:
- Force on +q is qE (along E).
- Force on -q is -qE (opposite to E).
- Since E is uniform, the forces are equal and opposite. Thus, the net force on the dipole is zero.
Net Torque (τ):
- Although the net force is zero, the forces act at different points, creating a torque on the dipole.
- Magnitude of torque = magnitude of each force × perpendicular distance between forces.
- Perpendicular distance = 2a sinθ (where θ is angle between p and E).
- Magnitude of torque = (qE) × (2a sinθ) = (2qa) E sinθ = p E sinθ.
- Vector Form: τ = p × E.
- Direction of Torque: Normal to the plane containing p and E (determined by right-hand rule for cross product).
Effect of Torque: This torque tends to align the dipole with the electric field E. When p is aligned with E (θ = 0°), the torque is zero.
Dipole in a Non-Uniform External Field:
- If the field E is non-uniform, the forces qE and -qE will not be equal in magnitude. Therefore, the net force on the dipole will be non-zero.
- In general, there will also be a torque.
- Specific Cases (non-uniform field):
  - If p is parallel to E, the dipole experiences a net force in the direction of increasing field.
  - If p is antiparallel to E, the dipole experiences a net force in the direction of decreasing field.
- Application: A charged comb attracts uncharged pieces of paper.
  - The comb polarizes the paper (induces a dipole moment in the paper).
  - The electric field due to the comb is non-uniform.
  - This non-uniformity causes the induced dipole in the paper to experience a net force, pulling the paper towards the comb (towards increasing field strength).

1.12 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

Necessity: For many purposes, it's impractical to work with discrete charges (e.g., on a charged conductor surface), requiring the use of continuous charge distributions.
Concept: Instead of specifying individual microscopic charges, we consider small macroscopic elements (area, length, volume) that still contain a large number of microscopic charges and define charge densities.
Types of Charge Densities:
- Surface Charge Density (σ):
  - Definition: σ = ΔQ/ΔS, where ΔQ is charge on area element ΔS.
  - Units: C/m^2.
  - Represents a macroscopic average, ignoring microscopic discontinuity.
- Linear Charge Density (λ):
  - Definition: λ = ΔQ/Δl, where ΔQ is charge on line element Δl.
  - Units: C/m.
- Volume Charge Density (ρ):
  - Definition: ρ = ΔQ/ΔV, where ΔQ is charge in volume element ΔV.
  - Units: C/m^3.
Analogy: Similar to using macroscopic mass density for a liquid, ignoring its discrete molecular constitution.
Electric Field from Continuous Distribution:
- Obtained by dividing the distribution into small volume elements (e.g., ρΔV).
- Electric field due to one element: ΔE = (1/(4πε0)) * (ρΔV / r'^2) * r̂'.
- Total electric field: Sum (or integral for ΔV → 0) over all volume elements.
- E = Σ ΔE = (1/(4πε0)) * Σ [ (ρΔV / r'^2) * r̂' ].
- Can be determined for any charge distribution (discrete, continuous, or mixed).

1.13 GAUSS’S LAW

Introduction via Example: Total flux through a sphere of radius r enclosing a point charge q at its center.
- For a small area element ΔS on the sphere, E is radial and perpendicular to ΔS.
- ΔΦ = E . ΔS = E ΔS = (q / (4πε0r^2)) ΔS.
- Total flux Φ = Σ ΔΦ = (q / (4πε0r^2)) ΣΔS.
- ΣΔS = 4πr^2 (total surface area of sphere).
- Φ = (q / (4πε0r^2)) * (4πr^2) = q/ε0.
Gauss's Law (Statement): The total electric flux (Φ) through any closed surface (S) is equal to 1/ε0 times the total charge (q_enclosed) enclosed by that surface.
- Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
Consequence: If no charge is enclosed by the surface, the total electric flux through it is zero.
Example (Uniform Electric Field through Cylinder):
- Closed cylindrical surface, axis parallel to uniform field E.
- Flux through curved surface = 0 (E is perpendicular to normal).
- Flux through left circular face = -E S (outward normal opposite to E).
- Flux through right circular face = +E S (outward normal along E).
- Total flux = -ES + ES + 0 = 0. This is consistent with no net charge enclosed.
- Therefore, if net electric flux through a closed surface is zero, total charge inside is zero.
Important Points Regarding Gauss's Law:
- (i) Generality: True for any closed surface, regardless of its shape or size.
- (ii) Enclosed Charge: The term q on the RHS refers to the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface only. Charges can be anywhere inside.
- (iii) Electric Field (LHS): The electric field E (whose flux is calculated) is due to all charges, both inside and outside the Gaussian surface. However, only enclosed charges contribute to the total flux on the RHS.
- (iv) Gaussian Surface: The surface chosen for applying Gauss's law.
  - Cannot pass through any discrete charge (because E is not well-defined at a point charge's location).
  - Can pass through a continuous charge distribution.
- (v) Utility: Often useful for easier calculation of electrostatic field when the system has symmetry, by choosing a suitable Gaussian surface.
- (vi) Basis: Gauss's law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance found in Coulomb's law. Any violation of Gauss's law would indicate a departure from the inverse square law.

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

Example 1.10: Electric field components Ex = ax^(1/2), Ey = Ez = 0, with a = 800 N/C m^(1/2). Calculate (a) flux through a cube of side 'a' (given a=0.1m), and (b) charge within the cube.
- Solution (a) Flux through the cube:
  - Only faces perpendicular to the x-axis contribute to flux (for other faces, E is perpendicular to normal, so E.dS = 0).
  - Left face (at x = a):
    - EL = a * a^(1/2) = 800 * (0.1)^(1/2) N/C.
    - Normal is in -x direction. Flux ΦL = EL . ΔS = EL * Area * cos(180°) = -EL * a^2.
  - Right face (at x = 2a):
    - ER = a * (2a)^(1/2) = 800 * (2 * 0.1)^(1/2) N/C.
    - Normal is in +x direction. Flux ΦR = ER . ΔS = ER * Area * cos(0°) = ER * a^2.
  - Net flux Φ = ΦR + ΦL = a^2 (ER - EL) = a^2 * a * [(2a)^(1/2) - a^(1/2)] = a * a^(5/2) * (√2 - 1).
  - Substitute a = 0.1m, a = 800:
  - Φ = 800 * (0.1)^(5/2) * (√2 - 1) = 800 * (0.003162) * (0.414) = 1.05 Nm^2/C.
- Solution (b) Charge within the cube:
  - Using Gauss's Law: Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
  - q_enclosed = Φ * ε0 = 1.05 Nm^2/C * 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2 = 9.27 × 10^-12 C.
Example 1.11: Uniform E field: E = 200 î N/C for x > 0 and E = -200 î N/C for x < 0. Right circular cylinder, length 20 cm, radius 5 cm, center at origin, axis along x-axis (faces at x = +10 cm and x = -10 cm). (a) Net outward flux through each flat face? (b) Flux through side of cylinder? (c) Net outward flux through cylinder? (d) Net charge inside cylinder?
- Solution:
  - Cylinder radius = 5 cm = 0.05 m. Area of circular face = πr^2 = π(0.05)^2 = 0.0025π m^2.
  - Left face (at x = -10 cm):
    - E = -200 î N/C. Outward normal ΔS is in -î direction.
    - (a) Flux ΦL = E . ΔS = (-200 î) . (-ΔS î) = +200 ΔS = +200 * π(0.05)^2 = +1.57 Nm^2/C.
  - Right face (at x = +10 cm):
    - E = +200 î N/C. Outward normal ΔS is in +î direction.
    - (a) Flux ΦR = E . ΔS = (+200 î) . (+ΔS î) = +200 ΔS = +200 * π(0.05)^2 = +1.57 Nm^2/C.
  - Side of the cylinder:
    - (b) For any point on the side, E is perpendicular to ΔS (radial normal). Thus, E . ΔS = 0.
    - Flux through side = 0.
  - Net outward flux through cylinder:
    - (c) Φ_net = ΦL + ΦR + Φ_side = 1.57 + 1.57 + 0 = 3.14 Nm^2/C.
  - Net charge inside cylinder:
    - (d) Using Gauss's Law: q_enclosed = Φ_net * ε0.
    - q_enclosed = 3.14 * 8.854 × 10^-12 C = 2.78 × 10^-11 C.

1.14 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

Gauss's law simplifies electric field calculation for symmetric charge configurations where direct integration (summation) of Eq. (1.27) is difficult.

1.14.1 Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire

Charge Configuration: Infinitely long, thin, straight wire with uniform linear charge density λ.
Symmetry:
- Radial Symmetry: Electric field must have the same magnitude at all points equidistant from the wire. It is always radial (outward if λ > 0, inward if λ < 0).
- Translational Symmetry: Electric field does not depend on position along the length of the wire.
Gaussian Surface: A cylindrical Gaussian surface coaxial with the wire, of radius 'r' and length 'l'.
Flux Calculation:
- Flux through end caps (circular faces): Zero, because E is radial (perpendicular to the normal of the end caps).
- Flux through curved cylindrical part: E is normal to the surface at every point, and its magnitude is constant (depends only on r). Area of curved part = 2πrl. So, Φ_curved = E × 2πrl.
Charge Enclosed: q_enclosed = λl.
Applying Gauss's Law: Φ_net = q_enclosed / ε0
- E × 2πrl = λl / ε0.
- Electric Field (E): E = λ / (2πε0r).
Vector Form: E = (λ / (2πε0r)) n̂.
- n̂: Radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing through the point.
- Direction: Outward if λ is positive, inward if λ is negative.
Important Note: E is due to the charge on the entire wire, but only the enclosed charge determines the flux through the Gaussian surface. The assumption of an infinitely long wire is crucial for the symmetry argument. This formula is approximately true for central portions of a long wire where end effects are negligible.

1.14.2 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

Charge Configuration: Infinite plane sheet with uniform surface charge density σ.
Symmetry:
- Perpendicular Direction: Electric field must be normal to the plane (parallel to x-axis if plane is yz).
- Translational Symmetry: Electric field does not depend on y and z coordinates.
- Distance Independence: E is independent of the distance (x) from the plane.
Gaussian Surface: A rectangular parallelepiped (or cylinder) with its faces perpendicular and parallel to the plane.
Flux Calculation:
- Flux through side faces: Zero, as E lines are parallel to these faces.
- Flux through two end faces: E passes perpendicularly through the two end faces, each of area A. Both faces contribute positively to the outward flux (one at +x, one at -x, but E reverses direction). Normal to surface 1 is in -x, normal to surface 2 is in +x. If E is normal to the surface, it will pass through both. E is away from the sheet on both sides. So, for the right face, E is outward, and for the left face, E is outward.
- Let's clarify direction of E. If sigma is positive, E points away from the sheet. So, on the right side, E is +x. On the left side, E is -x.
- Flux through left face (at -x): E_left . ΔS_left = (-E î) . (-A î) = +EA.
- Flux through right face (at +x): E_right . ΔS_right = (+E î) . (+A î) = +EA.
- Net flux = 2EA.
Charge Enclosed: q_enclosed = σA.
Applying Gauss's Law: Φ_net = q_enclosed / ε0
- 2EA = σA / ε0.
- Electric Field (E): E = σ / (2ε0).
Vector Form: E = (σ / (2ε0)) n̂.
- n̂: Unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it.
- Direction: Away from the plate if σ is positive, towards the plate if σ is negative.
Important Note: This formula is approximately true for the middle regions of a finite large planar sheet, away from the ends.

1.14.3 Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

Charge Configuration: Thin spherical shell of radius R with uniform surface charge density σ.
Symmetry: Spherical symmetry. Field at any point (inside or outside) depends only on 'r' (radial distance from center) and is radial.
Gaussian Surface: A concentric spherical Gaussian surface of radius 'r'.
(i) Field outside the shell (r > R):
- Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r > R.
- E is uniform on this surface and radial (parallel to normal).
- Flux Φ = E × (Area of Gaussian sphere) = E × 4πr^2.
- Charge Enclosed: The entire charge of the shell, q = σ × (Area of shell) = σ × 4πR^2.
- Applying Gauss's Law: Φ = q_enclosed / ε0
  - E × 4πr^2 = (σ × 4πR^2) / ε0.
  - E = (σR^2) / (ε0r^2).
  - Substituting q = σ4πR^2: E = q / (4πε0r^2).
- Vector Form: E = (q / (4πε0r^2)) r̂.
- Conclusion: For points outside the shell, the electric field is as if the entire charge of the shell is concentrated at its center. Direction is outward if q > 0, inward if q < 0.
(ii) Field inside the shell (r < R):
- Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r < R.
- Charge Enclosed: q_enclosed = 0 (no charge inside the shell).
- Applying Gauss's Law: Φ = q_enclosed / ε0
  - E × 4πr^2 = 0 / ε0.
  - Electric Field (E) = 0 (for r < R).
- Conclusion: The field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points inside the shell. This is a direct consequence of Gauss's law and confirms the 1/r^2 dependence of Coulomb's law.

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

Example 1.12: An early atomic model: positively charged point nucleus (Ze) surrounded by a uniform negative charge density up to radius R. Atom is neutral. Find electric field at distance r from nucleus.
- Solution:
  - Total negative charge = -Ze (since atom is neutral).
  - Volume of negative charge sphere = (4/3)πR^3.
  - Negative charge density ρ = (-Ze) / ((4/3)πR^3) = -3Ze / (4πR^3).
  - Use spherical Gaussian surface concentric with nucleus.
  - (i) For r < R (inside the negative charge cloud):
    - Electric flux Φ = E(r) × 4πr^2.
    - Charge enclosed q_enclosed = (Positive nuclear charge) + (Negative charge within radius r).
    - q_enclosed = Ze + ρ × (4/3)πr^3.
    - Substitute ρ: q_enclosed = Ze + (-3Ze / (4πR^3)) × (4/3)πr^3 = Ze - Ze(r^3/R^3) = Ze(1 - r^3/R^3).
    - Applying Gauss's Law: E(r) × 4πr^2 = Ze(1 - r^3/R^3) / ε0.
    - E(r) = (Ze / (4πε0r^2)) * (1 - r^3/R^3) (for r < R, directed radially outward).
  - (ii) For r > R (outside the atom):
    - Gaussian surface encloses the entire atom.
    - Total charge enclosed = Ze (nucleus) + (-Ze) (negative cloud) = 0.
    - Applying Gauss's Law: E(r) × 4πr^2 = 0 / ε0.
    - E(r) = 0 (for r > R).
  - At r = R, both formulas give E = 0.

SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAS

Electric Charges: Two types (positive, negative). Like repel, unlike attract. Quantised (q=ne), additive (scalar sum), conserved (total charge in isolated system is constant).
Conductors & Insulators: Materials allowing/resisting charge movement due to free/bound electrons.
Coulomb's Law: Mutual electrostatic force between two point charges q1, q2 separated by r.
- F = (1/(4πε0)) * q1q2 / r^2.
- ε0 = 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2 (permittivity of free space).
- k = 9 × 10^9 N m^2 C^-2.
- Comparison with gravitational force: Electric force is vastly stronger and can be attractive or repulsive.
Superposition Principle: Net force on a charge is the vector sum of forces due to all other individual charges; individual forces are unaffected by others.
Electric Field (E): Force per unit positive test charge.
- E = F/q_test.
- For a point charge Q: E = (1/(4πε0)) * Q/r^2 r̂ (radially outward for +Q, inward for -Q).
- For a system of charges: Vector sum of individual fields.
- Field lines map E: tangent gives direction, density gives strength. Start +ve, end -ve, no crossing, no closed loops.
- Physical significance: Mediates interactions, propagates at 'c', carries energy.
Electric Dipole: Two equal & opposite charges ±q separated by 2a.
- Dipole moment p = q × 2a p̂ (direction from -q to +q).
- Electric field falls off as 1/r^3 at large distances.
  - On axis (r>>a): E = (1/(4πε0)) * 2p/r^3.
  - On equatorial plane (r>>a): E = - (1/(4πε0)) * p/r^3.
Dipole in Uniform Electric Field:
- Net force = zero.
- Torque τ = p × E. Tends to align p with E.
Electric Flux (Φ): Flow of E-field lines through a surface.
- For small area element ΔS = ΔS n̂: ΔΦ = E . ΔS = E ΔS cosθ.
- Total flux: Φ = ∫ E . dS. Unit: Nm^2/C or Vm.
Gauss's Law: Total electric flux through any closed surface S is (1/ε0) times the total charge enclosed by S.
- Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
- Useful for symmetric charge distributions.
Applications of Gauss's Law:
- (i) Infinite long straight uniformly charged wire (linear charge density λ):
  - E = (λ / (2πε0r)) n̂.
- (ii) Infinite thin plane sheet (surface charge density σ):
  - E = (σ / (2ε0)) n̂.
- (iii) Uniformly charged thin spherical shell (total charge q, radius R):
  - Outside (r ≥ R): E = (1/(4πε0)) * q/r^2 r̂ (as if charge is at center).
  - Inside (r < R): E = 0.

EXERCISES (FROM THE SOURCE) AND SOLUTIONS

Here are the detailed solutions for the exercises provided in the source.

1.1 What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2 × 10–7C and 3 × 10–7C placed 30 cm apart in air?

Given:
- q1 = 2 × 10^-7 C
- q2 = 3 × 10^-7 C
- r = 30 cm = 0.3 m
- k = 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2 (for air/vacuum)
Formula: Coulomb's Law, F = k * |q1q2| / r^2
Calculation:
- F = (9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2) * (2 × 10^-7 C) * (3 × 10^-7 C) / (0.3 m)^2
- F = (9 × 10^9 * 6 × 10^-14) / 0.09
- F = (54 × 10^-5) / 0.09
- F = 600 × 10^-5 N
- F = 6.0 × 10^-3 N
Nature of Force: Since both charges are positive, the force is repulsive.

1.2 The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4 mC due to another small sphere of charge –0.8 mC in air is 0.2 N. (a) What is the distance between the two spheres? (b) What is the force on the second sphere due to the first?

Given:
- q1 = 0.4 μC = 0.4 × 10^-6 C
- q2 = -0.8 μC = -0.8 × 10^-6 C
- F = 0.2 N
- k = 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2
Formula: Coulomb's Law, F = k * |q1q2| / r^2

(a) What is the distance between the two spheres?

Rearrange formula: r^2 = k * |q1q2| / F
r^2 = (9 × 10^9) * (0.4 × 10^-6) * (0.8 × 10^-6) / 0.2
r^2 = (9 × 10^9 * 0.32 × 10^-12) / 0.2
r^2 = (2.88 × 10^-3) / 0.2
r^2 = 14.4 × 10^-3 = 0.0144 m^2
r = √0.0144 = 0.12 m

(b) What is the force on the second sphere due to the first?

According to Newton's Third Law of Motion, the force exerted by the first sphere on the second sphere is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by the second sphere on the first.
Therefore, the force on the second sphere due to the first is also 0.2 N.
Nature of Force: Since the charges are of opposite signs, the force is attractive.

1.3 Check that the ratio ke^2/G me mp is dimensionless. Look up a Table of Physical Constants and determine the value of this ratio. What does the ratio signify?

Given Ratio: (ke^2) / (G me mp)
Dimensional Analysis:
- k (Coulomb's constant): [M L^3 T^-4 A^-2] (from F = k q1q2/r^2 => k = F r^2 / q1q2 => [MLT^-2] [L^2] / [A^2T^2] = [ML^3T^-4A^-2])
- e (elementary charge): [A T]
- e^2: [A^2 T^2]
- G (Gravitational constant): [M^-1 L^3 T^-2] (from F = G m1m2/r^2 => G = F r^2 / m1m2 => [MLT^-2] [L^2] / [M^2] = [M^-1L^3T^-2])
- me (mass of electron): [M]
- mp (mass of proton): [M]
- me mp: [M^2]
Dimensions of Numerator (ke^2):
- [M L^3 T^-4 A^-2] * [A^2 T^2] = [M L^3 T^-2]
Dimensions of Denominator (G me mp):
- [M^-1 L^3 T^-2] * [M^2] = [M L^3 T^-2]
Dimensions of Ratio: ([M L^3 T^-2]) / ([M L^3 T^-2]) = [M^0 L^0 T^0].
- Conclusion: The ratio is indeed dimensionless.
Value of the Ratio (using constants from source's Example 1.3):
- k = 1/(4πε0) ≈ 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2
- e = 1.6 × 10^-19 C
- G = 6.67 × 10^-11 Nm^2/kg^2
- me = 9.11 × 10^-31 kg
- mp = 1.67 × 10^-27 kg
- Ratio = (9 × 10^9) * (1.6 × 10^-19)^2 / (6.67 × 10^-11 * 9.11 × 10^-31 * 1.67 × 10^-27)
- Ratio = (9 × 10^9 * 2.56 × 10^-38) / (6.67 * 9.11 * 1.67 × 10^-69)
- Ratio = (23.04 × 10^-29) / (101.4 * 10^-69)
- Ratio ≈ 0.227 × 10^40 = 2.27 × 10^39 (matches Example 1.3's value of ~2.4 × 10^39 for electron and proton).
Significance of the Ratio:
- This ratio compares the strength of the electrostatic force to the gravitational force between an electron and a proton.
- The extremely large value (on the order of 10^39) signifies that the electrostatic force is overwhelmingly stronger than the gravitational force at the atomic and subatomic level. This explains why gravitational forces are negligible in determining the structure of atoms and molecules, where electromagnetic forces dominate.

1.4 (a) Explain the meaning of the statement ‘electric charge of a body is quantised’. (b) Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge when dealing with macroscopic i.e., large scale charges?

(a) Meaning of 'Electric charge of a body is quantised':

The statement means that the total electric charge (q) on any free body is always an integral multiple of a basic, fundamental unit of charge, denoted by 'e'.
Mathematically, this is expressed as q = ne, where 'n' is an integer (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...).
The basic unit of charge 'e' is the magnitude of charge carried by an electron (-e) or a proton (+e), and its value is approximately 1.602 × 10^-19 C.
This implies that charge cannot take any arbitrary value; it can only exist in discrete packets or 'quanta' of 'e'.

(b) Why quantisation can be ignored for macroscopic charges:

At the macroscopic level, we deal with charges that are enormous compared to the magnitude of the elementary charge 'e'. For example, 1 microcoulomb (10^-6 C) contains about 10^13 times the electronic charge.
Since the value of 'e' (1.6 × 10^-19 C) is incredibly small, the steps by which charge can increase or decrease (in units of 'e') are infinitesimally tiny relative to the overall macroscopic charge.
In such situations, the grainy or discrete nature of charge is practically unobservable, and the charge appears to be continuous, much like a dotted line viewed from a distance appears continuous.
Therefore, for practical purposes involving large-scale charges, the quantisation of electric charge has no practical consequence and can be safely ignored.

1.5 When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, charges appear on both. A similar phenomenon is observed with many other pairs of bodies. Explain how this observation is consistent with the law of conservation of charge.

The law of conservation of charge states that the total electric charge of an isolated system remains unchanged with time. This means that charges can be transferred from one body to another, but they cannot be created or destroyed.
When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the system initially consists of a neutral glass rod and a neutral silk cloth. The total charge of the system before rubbing is zero.
During rubbing, some electrons are transferred from the glass rod to the silk cloth.
- Since the glass rod loses electrons (negative charges), it acquires a net positive charge.
- Since the silk cloth gains electrons (negative charges), it acquires a net negative charge.
Crucially, the amount of positive charge acquired by the glass rod is exactly equal in magnitude to the amount of negative charge acquired by the silk cloth.
Therefore, after rubbing, the total charge of the glass rod and silk cloth combined is (+Q) + (-Q) = 0.
Conclusion: The observation is consistent with the law of conservation of charge because no new charge is created or destroyed. Instead, there is simply a transfer of charge (electrons) within the isolated system, ensuring that the total charge of the system remains conserved (zero in this case) before and after the rubbing process.

1.6 Four point charges qA = 2 mC, qB = –5 mC, qC = 2 mC, and qD = –5 mC are located at the corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a charge of 1 mC placed at the centre of the square?

Given:
- Square ABCD, side l = 10 cm = 0.1 m.
- Charges at corners: qA = 2 μC, qB = -5 μC, qC = 2 μC, qD = -5 μC.
- Test charge at center: q_center = 1 μC.
Principle: Superposition Principle.
Geometry:
- Let the center of the square be O.
- The distance from the center O to each corner is half the length of the diagonal.
- Diagonal length = l√2 = 0.1√2 m.
- Distance r = (0.1√2)/2 = 0.05√2 m.
- Due to symmetry, the distances OA = OB = OC = OD = r.
Force on q_center due to qA (FA):
- qA = +2 μC, q_center = +1 μC. Force is repulsive, directed away from A (along OC).
- Magnitude: FA = k * |qA * q_center| / r^2
Force on q_center due to qC (FC):
- qC = +2 μC, q_center = +1 μC. Force is repulsive, directed away from C (along OA).
- Magnitude: FC = k * |qC * q_center| / r^2
Since qA = qC and their distances from the center are equal (r), FA = FC.
The forces FA (along OC) and FC (along OA) are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Therefore, FA + FC = 0 (vector sum).
Force on q_center due to qB (FB):
- qB = -5 μC, q_center = +1 μC. Force is attractive, directed towards B (along OB).
- Magnitude: FB = k * |qB * q_center| / r^2
Force on q_center due to qD (FD):
- qD = -5 μC, q_center = +1 μC. Force is attractive, directed towards D (along OD).
- Magnitude: FD = k * |qD * q_center| / r^2
Since qB = qD and their distances from the center are equal (r), FB = FD.
The forces FB (along OB) and FD (along OD) are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Therefore, FB + FD = 0 (vector sum).
Total Force:
- F_net = FA + FB + FC + FD = (FA + FC) + (FB + FD) = 0 + 0 = 0 N.
Conclusion: The net force on the charge of 1 μC placed at the center of the square is zero. This is due to the symmetric arrangement of equal and opposite charges.

1.7 (a) An electrostatic field line is a continuous curve. That is, a field line cannot have sudden breaks. Why not? (b) Explain why two field lines never cross each other at any point?

(a) Why an electrostatic field line is a continuous curve (cannot have sudden breaks):

An electric field line represents the path a unit positive test charge would follow if placed in the electric field.
If an electric field line had a sudden break, it would imply that the electric field suddenly ceases to exist at that point, or that a test charge would suddenly stop or vanish.
However, electric field is a physical quantity that exists continuously in space around a charge configuration (except possibly at the location of point charges themselves).
For a test charge to move, it must experience a force at every point. A break in the field line would mean there's no force, and thus no field, at that point, which contradicts the continuous nature of electric field in charge-free regions.
Therefore, for a continuous and existing electric field, the field lines must also be continuous curves without any breaks.

(b) Why two field lines never cross each other at any point:

The tangent to an electric field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field (and thus the force on a positive test charge) at that point.
If two electric field lines were to cross each other at a certain point, it would mean that at that single point of intersection, there would be two different tangents to the field lines.
This would imply that the electric field at that single point has two different directions simultaneously.
However, the electric field at any given point in space can only have a unique direction. A point charge placed at that location can only experience a force in one specific direction.
Since having two directions for the electric field at a single point is physically impossible and absurd, it follows that two electric field lines can never cross each other.

1.8 Two point charges qA = 3 mC and qB = –3 mC are located 20 cm apart in vacuum. (a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges? (b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 × 10–9 C is placed at this point, what is the force experienced by the test charge?

Given:
- qA = +3 μC = +3 × 10^-6 C
- qB = -3 μC = -3 × 10^-6 C
- Distance between qA and qB = d = 20 cm = 0.2 m
- Midpoint O: Distance AO = BO = d/2 = 0.1 m
- k = 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2

(a) Electric field at the midpoint O:

Electric field due to qA at O (EA):
- Since qA is positive, EA points away from qA, i.e., towards B.
- Magnitude EA = k * |qA| / (AO)^2 = (9 × 10^9) * (3 × 10^-6) / (0.1)^2
- EA = (27 × 10^3) / 0.01 = 2.7 × 10^6 N/C (along OB)
Electric field due to qB at O (EB):
- Since qB is negative, EB points towards qB, i.e., towards B.
- Magnitude EB = k * |qB| / (BO)^2 = (9 × 10^9) * (3 × 10^-6) / (0.1)^2
- EB = (27 × 10^3) / 0.01 = 2.7 × 10^6 N/C (along OB)
Total Electric Field at O (E_total):
- Both EA and EB are in the same direction (from A to B).
- E_total = EA + EB = 2.7 × 10^6 N/C + 2.7 × 10^6 N/C
- E_total = 5.4 × 10^6 N/C (directed from A to B)

(b) Force on a negative test charge at O:

Given test charge: q_test = -1.5 × 10^-9 C
Formula: F = q_test * E_total
Calculation:
- F = (-1.5 × 10^-9 C) * (5.4 × 10^6 N/C)
- F = -8.1 × 10^-3 N
Magnitude of Force: 8.1 × 10^-3 N
Direction of Force: Since the test charge is negative, the force on it will be in the opposite direction to the electric field. The electric field is from A to B, so the force on the negative test charge will be from B to A.

1.9 A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C located at points A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the system?

Given:
- qA = +2.5 × 10^-7 C at A(0, 0, -15 cm)
- qB = -2.5 × 10^-7 C at B(0, 0, +15 cm)
Positions in meters:
- A = (0, 0, -0.15 m)
- B = (0, 0, +0.15 m)

(a) Total charge of the system:

According to the principle of additivity of charges, the total charge is the algebraic sum of all individual charges.
Q_total = qA + qB = (+2.5 × 10^-7 C) + (-2.5 × 10^-7 C) = 0 C.

(b) Electric dipole moment of the system:

Definition: An electric dipole is formed by two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance. This system fits the definition.
Magnitude of charges: q = |qA| = |qB| = 2.5 × 10^-7 C.
Separation distance (2a): Distance between A and B along z-axis.
- 2a = |(+0.15 m) - (-0.15 m)| = 0.30 m.
Magnitude of dipole moment (p): p = q × (2a).
- p = (2.5 × 10^-7 C) × (0.30 m) = 7.5 × 10^-8 C m.
Direction of dipole moment: By convention, the direction is from the negative charge to the positive charge.
- The negative charge (qB) is at B(0, 0, +0.15 m).
- The positive charge (qA) is at A(0, 0, -0.15 m).
- Therefore, the direction of the dipole moment vector is from B to A.
- Since A is at -z and B is at +z, the vector from B to A is along the negative z-axis (or -k̂ direction).
Electric dipole moment vector: p = 7.5 × 10^-8 C m (-k̂) (or 7.5 × 10^-8 C m along negative z-axis).

1.10 An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10–9 C m is aligned at 30° with the direction of a uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 10^4 NC–1. Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole.

Given:
- Dipole moment magnitude p = 4 × 10^-9 C m
- Electric field magnitude E = 5 × 10^4 N C^-1
- Angle between p and E, θ = 30°
Formula: Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field, τ = p E sinθ.
Calculation:
- τ = (4 × 10^-9 C m) * (5 × 10^4 N C^-1) * sin(30°)
- τ = (20 × 10^-5) * (1/2)
- τ = 10 × 10^-5 Nm
- τ = 1.0 × 10^-4 Nm

1.11 A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3 × 10–7 C. (a) Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which to which?) (b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?

Given: Charge on polythene, q = -3 × 10^-7 C
Elementary charge: e = 1.6 × 10^-19 C

(a) Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which to which?)

Formula: q = ne, where n is the number of electrons transferred.
n = q / e
n = (-3 × 10^-7 C) / (-1.6 × 10^-19 C/electron)
n = (3 / 1.6) × 10^(-7 - (-19))
n = 1.875 × 10^12 electrons
Number of electrons transferred = 1.875 × 10^12.
Direction of transfer: Since the polythene piece acquires a negative charge, it must have gained electrons. Therefore, electrons were transferred from the wool to the polythene piece.

(b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?

Yes, there is a transfer of mass.
Electrons, though very light, possess a definite mass.
Mass of one electron (me) ≈ 9.11 × 10^-31 kg.
Since electrons are transferred from the wool to the polythene, the polythene gains mass, and the wool loses an equal amount of mass.
Mass transferred = n × me
Mass transferred = (1.875 × 10^12) × (9.11 × 10^-31 kg)
Mass transferred ≈ 1.71 × 10^-18 kg.
Although this mass transfer is extremely small and practically negligible for macroscopic observations, it fundamentally exists.

1.12 (a) Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B have their centres separated by a distance of 50 cm. What is the mutual force of electrostatic repulsion if the charge on each is 6.5 × 10–7 C? The radii of A and B are negligible compared to the distance of separation. (b) What is the force of repulsion if each sphere is charged double the above amount, and the distance between them is halved?

Given:
- k = 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2

(a) Initial Force:

qA = qB = q = 6.5 × 10^-7 C
r = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Formula: F = k * q^2 / r^2
Calculation:
- F = (9 × 10^9) * (6.5 × 10^-7)^2 / (0.5)^2
- F = (9 × 10^9 * 42.25 × 10^-14) / 0.25
- F = (380.25 × 10^-5) / 0.25
- F = 1521 × 10^-5 N = 1.521 × 10^-2 N
Nature of Force: Repulsion (since both charges are positive).

(b) Force after changes:

New charges: q' = 2q = 2 × (6.5 × 10^-7 C) = 1.3 × 10^-6 C
New distance: r' = r/2 = 0.5 m / 2 = 0.25 m
Formula: F' = k * (q')^2 / (r')^2
Calculation:
- F' = (9 × 10^9) * (1.3 × 10^-6)^2 / (0.25)^2
- F' = (9 × 10^9 * 1.69 × 10^-12) / 0.0625
- F' = (15.21 × 10^-3) / 0.0625
- F' = 243.36 × 10^-3 N = 0.243 N
Alternative approach for (b):
- F' = k * (2q)^2 / (r/2)^2 = k * 4q^2 / (r^2/4) = 16 * (k * q^2 / r^2) = 16 * F
- F' = 16 * (1.521 × 10^-2 N) = 0.24336 N. This matches.
Nature of Force: Repulsion.

1.13 Figure 1.30 shows tracks of three charged particles in a uniform electrostatic field. Give the signs of the three charges. Which particle has the highest charge to mass ratio?

Understanding the setup: The figure shows charged particles entering a region with a uniform electric field. The field lines are horizontal, implying the electric field E is directed towards the right (as field lines point from positive to negative, or from high potential to low potential, the implicit plates suggest E is to the right if upper plate is positive and lower negative, or vice versa, but usually field is from positive to negative).
Interpretation of deflection:
- A charged particle experiences a force F = qE in an electric field.
- If q is positive, F is in the direction of E.
- If q is negative, F is opposite to the direction of E.
- The particles enter horizontally. Their deflection direction tells us the direction of the force and thus the sign of the charge relative to the field.
Signs of the three charges:
- Particle 1: Deflects downwards. For it to deflect downwards, the electric force on it must be downwards. If we assume the electric field E is pointing horizontally to the right (as usually depicted in such diagrams, although not explicitly stated), then this downward deflection means the particle is moving under the influence of an electric field in the vertical direction. Let's reinterpret. The diagram implies the field is uniform, vertical, and pointing upwards or downwards. Looking at the deflection, if the field is upwards, positive charges would go up, negative charges would go down. If the field is downwards, positive charges would go down, negative charges would go up.
- However, usually in such diagrams, electric field lines are drawn from the positive plate to the negative plate. Let's assume the top plate is positive and the bottom plate is negative. Then the uniform electric field E is directed downwards.
  - Particle 1: Deflects downwards. This means the force on it is downwards. Since the force (F=qE) is in the same direction as E, Particle 1 has a positive charge.
  - Particle 2: Continues undeflected. This implies it experiences no net electric force. Therefore, Particle 2 is electrically neutral (has no charge).
  - Particle 3: Deflects upwards. This means the force on it is upwards. Since the force (F=qE) is opposite to the direction of E (which is downwards), Particle 3 has a negative charge.
Which particle has the highest charge to mass ratio (|q|/m)?
- When a charged particle enters a uniform electric field perpendicularly, it undergoes parabolic motion similar to projectile motion in a gravitational field.
- The acceleration perpendicular to the initial velocity is given by a = F/m = qE/m.
- For a given horizontal velocity, a greater perpendicular acceleration results in a greater deflection (larger vertical displacement).
- From the figure, Particle 3 shows the largest deflection (greatest vertical displacement from its initial straight path) compared to Particle 1.
- Since deflection is proportional to acceleration (and thus to |q|/m), the particle with the largest deflection has the highest charge to mass ratio.
- Conclusion: Particle 3 has the highest charge to mass ratio.

1.14 Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 × 10^3 î N/C. (a) What is the flux of this field through a square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through the same square if the normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis?

Given:
- Uniform Electric field E = 3 × 10^3 î N/C (i.e., directed along the positive x-axis).
- Side of the square = 10 cm = 0.1 m.
- Area of the square, A = (0.1 m)^2 = 0.01 m^2.

(a) Plane parallel to the yz plane:

If the plane of the square is parallel to the yz-plane, its normal vector is along the x-axis (î direction).
So, the angle θ between E and the normal (area vector A) is 0° (or 180°, but for flux through it, we take the acute angle, or assume normal is in +x).
Formula: Φ = E . A = E A cosθ
Calculation:
- Φ = (3 × 10^3 N/C) * (0.01 m^2) * cos(0°)
- Φ = 30 * 1 = 30 Nm^2/C

(b) Normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis:

Here, the angle θ between E (along x-axis) and the normal to the plane (area vector A) is 60°.
Formula: Φ = E A cosθ
Calculation:
- Φ = (3 × 10^3 N/C) * (0.01 m^2) * cos(60°)
- Φ = 30 * (1/2) = 15 Nm^2/C

1.15 What is the net flux of the uniform electric field of Exercise 1.14 through a cube of side 20 cm oriented so that its faces are parallel to the coordinate planes?

Given:
- Uniform Electric field E = 3 × 10^3 î N/C.
- Cube side = 20 cm = 0.2 m.
- Faces parallel to coordinate planes.
Concept: For a uniform electric field, the net electric flux through any closed surface is zero if there is no charge enclosed within the surface.
Explanation for a cube:
- Faces perpendicular to x-axis:
  - Left face (normal -î): Φ_L = E . A = (3 × 10^3 î) . (A (-î)) = -3 × 10^3 A.
  - Right face (normal +î): Φ_R = E . A = (3 × 10^3 î) . (A (+î)) = +3 × 10^3 A.
  - Net flux from x-faces = Φ_L + Φ_R = (-3 × 10^3 A) + (3 × 10^3 A) = 0.
- Faces perpendicular to y-axis (top/bottom): The electric field E is along the x-axis. The normal to these faces is along the y-axis (±ĵ). So, E . A = E A cos(90°) = 0. Flux through these faces is zero.
- Faces perpendicular to z-axis (front/back): Similar to y-faces, E is perpendicular to the normal (±k̂). Flux through these faces is also zero.
Total Net Flux: Sum of flux through all six faces = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 Nm^2/C.
Reason: Since the electric field is uniform, the number of field lines entering the cube is equal to the number of field lines leaving the cube. Also, a uniform field implies no source or sink of charge within the volume. According to Gauss's Law, the net flux through a closed surface is q_enclosed/ε0. Since a uniform field implies no charge enclosed, the net flux must be zero.

1.16 Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black box indicates that the net outward flux through the surface of the box is 8.0 × 10^3 Nm^2/C. (a) What is the net charge inside the box? (b) If the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero, could you conclude that there were no charges inside the box? Why or Why not?

Given: Net outward flux Φ = 8.0 × 10^3 Nm^2/C
Constant: ε0 = 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2

(a) What is the net charge inside the box?

Formula: According to Gauss's Law, Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
Calculation:
- q_enclosed = Φ × ε0
- q_enclosed = (8.0 × 10^3 Nm^2/C) × (8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2)
- q_enclosed = 70.832 × 10^-9 C = 7.08 × 10^-8 C (or 70.832 nC).

(b) If the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero, could you conclude that there were no charges inside the box? Why or Why not?

If the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero (Φ = 0), then from Gauss's Law (Φ = q_enclosed / ε0), it implies that q_enclosed = 0.
This means the net (total algebraic sum) charge inside the box is zero.
However, it does NOT mean that there are no charges inside the box at all.
Why not? It is possible for the box to contain an equal amount of positive and negative charges. For example, a dipole (equal positive and negative charge) enclosed within the surface would result in a net charge of zero, and thus zero net flux, even though charges are present inside. The electric field lines starting from the positive charge inside would end on the negative charge inside, or if they exit, an equal number would re-enter the surface, leading to a zero net flux.

1.17 A point charge +10 mC is a distance 5 cm directly above the centre of a square of side 10 cm, as shown in Fig. 1.31. What is the magnitude of the electric flux through the square? (Hint: Think of the square as one face of a cube with edge 10 cm.)

Given:
- Point charge q = +10 μC = +10 × 10^-6 C.
- Charge is 5 cm above the center of a square of side 10 cm.
Concept: Gauss's Law states that the total electric flux through any closed surface enclosing a charge q is q/ε0.
Strategy (Hint-based): Imagine the given square as one face of a cube with an edge length of 10 cm.
- If the point charge is exactly at the center of this cube, then by symmetry, the total flux from the charge (q/ε0) would be equally distributed among the six identical faces of the cube.
- In this problem, the charge is at 5 cm directly above the center of a 10 cm side square. This means the charge is indeed exactly at the center of a cube if the square is one of its faces.
Calculation:
- Total flux through the imaginary cube (enclosing the charge) = Φ_total = q / ε0.
- Since the charge is at the center of the cube, the flux is distributed equally among the 6 faces.
- Flux through one face (the given square) = Φ_square = Φ_total / 6 = (q / ε0) / 6 = q / (6ε0).
- Φ_square = (10 × 10^-6 C) / (6 × 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2)
- Φ_square = (10 × 10^-6) / (53.124 × 10^-12)
- Φ_square = (10 / 53.124) × 10^6
- Φ_square ≈ 0.1882 × 10^6 Nm^2/C = 1.88 × 10^5 Nm^2/C (or Vm).

1.18 A point charge of 2.0 mC is at the centre of a cubic Gaussian surface 9.0 cm on edge. What is the net electric flux through the surface?

Given:
- Point charge q = 2.0 μC = 2.0 × 10^-6 C.
- Gaussian surface: Cube, 9.0 cm on edge.
Concept: Gauss's Law states that the total electric flux through any closed surface enclosing a charge q is independent of the shape or size of the surface, and is given by Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
Calculation:
- Φ = q / ε0
- Φ = (2.0 × 10^-6 C) / (8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2)
- Φ = (2.0 / 8.854) × 10^(-6 - (-12))
- Φ = 0.22588 × 10^6 Nm^2/C
- Φ ≈ 2.26 × 10^5 Nm^2/C (or Vm).

1.19 A point charge causes an electric flux of –1.0 × 10^3 Nm^2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian surface of 10.0 cm radius centred on the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the point charge?

Given:
- Initial flux Φ1 = -1.0 × 10^3 Nm^2/C
- Initial radius r1 = 10.0 cm
- ε0 = 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2 Nm^2/C**.

(b) What is the value of the point charge?

Formula: From Gauss's Law, Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
Calculation:
- q_enclosed = Φ × ε0
- q_enclosed = (-1.0 × 10^3 Nm^2/C) × (8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2)
- q_enclosed = -8.854 × 10^-9 C (or -8.854 nC).

1.20 A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If the electric field 20 cm from the centre of the sphere is 1.5 × 10^3 N/C and points radially inward, what is the net charge on the sphere?

Given:
- Radius of conducting sphere R = 10 cm = 0.1 m.
- Distance from center where E is measured, r = 20 cm = 0.2 m.
- Electric field magnitude E = 1.5 × 10^3 N/C.
- Electric field direction: radially inward.
- k = 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2 (or 1/(4πε0)).
Concept: For a uniformly charged conducting sphere (or spherical shell), the electric field at points outside the sphere (r > R) is the same as if the entire charge were concentrated at its center.
**Formula for0^9)
- |q| = (0.06 × 10^3) / (9 × 10^9)
- |q| = 6 × 10^1 / (9 × 10^9) = (6/9) × 10^(-8) = (2/3) × 10^-8
- |q| ≈ 0.667 × 10^-8 C = 6.67 × 10^-9 C.
Sign of charge: Since the electric field points radially inward, the net charge on the sphere must be negative.
Net charge on the sphere = -6.67 × 10^-9 C.

1.21 A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m diameter has a surface charge density of 80.0 mC/m^2. (a) Find the charge on the sphere. (b) What is the total electric flux leaving the surface of the sphere?

Given:
- Diameter = 2.4 m, so Radius R = 1.2 m.
- Surface charge density σ = 80.0 μC/m^2 = 80.0 × 10^-6 C/m^2.
- ε0 = 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2.

(a) Find the charge on the sphere.

Formula: Surface charge density σ = Charge / Area. So, Charge q = σ × Area.
Area of sphere = 4πR^2.
Calculation:
- q = σ × (4πR^2)
- q = (80.0 × 10^-6 C/m^2) × (4 × 3.14159 × (1.2 m)^2)
- q = 80.0 × 10^-6 × 4 × 3.14159 × 1.44
- q = 1447.64 × 10^-6 C
- q = 1.45 × 10^-3 C (or 1.45 mC).

(b) What is the total electric flux leaving the surface of the sphere?

Concept: According to Gauss's Law, the total electric flux leaving any closed surface (like the surface of the sphere itself, which can serve as a Gaussian surface here) is q_enclosed / ε0.
Calculation:
- Φ = q / ε0
- Φ = (1.45 × 10^-3 C) / (8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2)
- Φ = (1.45 / 8.854) × 10^(-3 - (-12))
- Φ = 0.16377 × 10^9 Nm^2/C
- Φ ≈ 1.64 × 10^8 Nm^2/C (or Vm).

1.22 An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 10^4 N/C at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the linear charge density.

Given:
- Electric field E = 9 × 10^4 N/C.
- Distance r = 2 cm = 0.02 m.
- k = 1/(4πε0) = 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2.
Formula: Electric field due to an infinite line charge, E = λ / (2πε0r).
- We can rewrite this as E = (1/(4πε0)) * (2λ / r) = k * (2λ / r).
Calculation:
- Rearrange for λ: λ = E * r / (2k) (from E = k * 2λ/r)
- λ = (9 × 10^4 N/C) * (0.02 m) / (2 * 9 × 10^9 Nm^2/C^2)
- λ = (0.18 × 10^4) / (18 × 10^9)
- λ = (18 × 10^2) / (18 × 10^9)
- λ = 1 × 10^(2-9) = 1.0 × 10^-7 C/m.

1.23 Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their inner faces, the plates have surface charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude 17.0 × 10–22 C/m^2. What is E: (a) in the outer region of the first plate, (b) in the outer region of the second plate, and (c) between the plates?

Given:
- Surface charge density magnitude |σ| = 17.0 × 10^-22 C/m^2.
- Plates are large, thin, and parallel.
- Let Plate 1 have +σ on its inner face and Plate 2 have -σ on its inner face.
- So, σ1 = +17.0 × 10^-22 C/m^2 and σ2 = -17.0 × 10^-22 C/m^2.
- ε0 = 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2.
Concept: Electric field due to an infinite plane sheet E_sheet = σ / (2ε0). The direction is away from a positive sheet and towards a negative sheet.
Let's denote E1 as the field due to Plate 1 and E2 as the field due to Plate 2.
- Magnitude of field from each plate: E_magnitude = (17.0 × 10^-22) / (2 * 8.854 × 10^-12) = (17.0 / 17.708) × 10^(-22+12) ≈ 0.960 × 10^-10 N/C.
- Let's keep it in symbolic form as σ/(2ε0) for now.

(a) In the outer region of the first plate (left of Plate 1):

E1 (from Plate 1, +σ) points left (away from +ve plate).
E2 (from Plate 2, -σ) points right (towards -ve plate).
The magnitudes are equal: E1 = E2 = σ/(2ε0).
Since they are in opposite directions, E_net = E1 - E2 = σ/(2ε0) - σ/(2ε0) = 0.
Conclusion: The electric field in the outer region of the first plate is 0 N/C.

(b) In the outer region of the second plate (right of Plate 2):

E1 (from Plate 1, +σ) points right (away from +ve plate).
E2 (from Plate 2, -σ) points left (towards -ve plate).
Magnitudes are equal: E1 = E2 = σ/(2ε0).
Since they are in opposite directions, E_net = E1 - E2 = σ/(2ε0) - σ/(2ε0) = 0.
**Conclusion: The electric field in the outer region of the second plate is /m^2) / (8.854 × 10^-12 C^2 N^-1 m^-2)
- E_net = (17.0 / 8.854) × 10^(-22 - (-12))
- E_net = 1.920 × 10^-10 N/C
- E_net = 1.92 × 10^-10 N/C (directed from the positive plate to the negative plate).

CBSE PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS AND BEST SCORING ANSWERS

It's challenging to extract "CBSE previous year questions" directly from the textbook excerpts without an external database of past papers. However, based on the content covered and the typical CBSE examination pattern, here are common types of questions and their best-scoring answers from this chapter.

Type 1: Definitions and Basic Concepts (1-2 marks)

Q1: Define electric charge and state its SI unit. A1 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): Electric charge is an intrinsic property of fundamental particles of matter that gives rise to electric force between them. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). One coulomb is defined as the charge flowing through a wire in 1 second if the current in the wire is 1 ampere.

Q2: Distinguish between conductors and insulators. Give one example of each. A2 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer):

Conductors: Substances that readily allow the passage of electricity through them. They possess free electric charges (electrons) that can move easily within the material.
- Example: Metals (e.g., Copper).
Insulators: Substances that offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through them. Their electrons are tightly bound to atoms and are not free to move.
- Example: Glass, Plastic.

Q3: What is meant by the "quantisation of electric charge"? A3 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): Quantisation of electric charge means that all free charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, denoted by 'e'. Any observable charge 'q' on a body can only be expressed as q = ne, where 'n' is an integer (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...) and 'e' is the elementary charge (magnitude of charge on an electron or proton, approximately 1.6 × 10^-19 C). This implies that charge exists in discrete packets rather than continuous values.

Q4: State the principle of superposition of electrostatic forces. A4 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): The principle of superposition states that the total electrostatic force on any one charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the individual forces exerted on that charge by each of the other charges, taken one at a time. An important aspect is that the individual forces between any two charges are unaffected by the presence of other charges.

Type 2: Properties and Explanations (2-3 marks)

Q5: Why do electric field lines not form closed loops? A5 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): Electric field lines do not form closed loops never cross each other. A6 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): The tangent to an electric field line at any point indicates the direction of the electric field (and thus the force on a positive test charge) at that point. If two electric field lines were to cross, it would imply that at the point of intersection, there would be two different tangents, meaning the electric field would have two different directions simultaneously. This is physically impossible, as the electric field at any single point in space can only have one unique direction. Hence, field lines never cross.

Q7: An electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field. What is the net force and net torque experienced by the dipole? A7 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer):

Net Force: When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform external electric field, the force exerted on the positive charge (+qE) is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted on the negative charge (-qE). Therefore, the net force on the electric dipole in a uniform electric field is zero.
Net Torque: Although the net force is zero, the two equal and opposite forces act at different points of application (separated by 2a). This creates a net torque on the dipole. The magnitude of the torque is given by τ = pE sinθ, where 'p' is the dipole moment, 'E' is the electric field strength, and 'θ' is the angle between the dipole moment vector and the electric field. The torque tends to align the dipole with the electric field. In vector form, it is given by τ = p × E.

Type 3: Numerical Problems and Derivations (3-5 marks)

Q8: Two point charges of +2 μC and -6 μC are placed 0.1 m apart. Where should a third charge be placed such that it experiences no net force?

A8 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): Let the charges be q1 = +2 μC and q2 = -6 μC, separated by d = 0.1 m. Let the third charge be Q. For Q to experience no net force, the forces due to q1 and q2 must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Since q1 and q2 are opposite signs, the third charge Q must be placed outside the region between q1 and q2, and closer to the smaller magnitude charge (q1) for the forces to balance.

Let Q be placed at a distance 'x' from q1 on the side of q1 (away from q2). Force on Q due to q1: F1 = k * |q1Q| / x^2 Force on Q due to q2: F2 = k * |q2Q| / (dTaking square root on both sides: 1 / x = √3 / (0.1+x) 0.1+x = √3 * x 0.1 = (√3 - 1) * x 0.1 = (1.732 - 1) * x 0.1 = 0.732 * x x = 0.1 / 0.732 = 0.1366 m

Therefore, the third charge Q should be placed approximately 0.137 m (or 13.7 cm) from the +2 μC charge, on the side away from the -6 μC charge.

Q9: Derive the expression for the electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet using Gauss's Law. A9 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): (1. Diagram): Draw a diagram showing an infinite plane sheet with uniform surface charge density +σ. Show a cylindrical Gaussian surface passing through the sheet, with its axis perpendicular to the sheet. Label the circular end caps (Area A) and the curved surface. Indicate the direction of the electric field E.

(2. Symmetry of Electric Field):

For an infinite plane sheet, by symmetry, the electric field E must be perpendicular to the plane of the sheet.
If the sheet is positively charged, E points away from the sheet on both sides. If negatively charged, E points towards the sheet.
The magnitude of E is uniform and independent of the distance from the sheet.

(3. Gaussian Surface):

Choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface of cross-sectional area A and length 2r, with its axis perpendicular to the plane sheet. The sheet passes exactly through the middle of the cylinder, so one end cap is on each side of the sheet.

(4. Calculation of Electric Flux (Φ)):

The Gaussian surface has three parts: two flat circular end caps and a curved cylindrical surface.
Flux through the curved surface (Φ_curved): The electric field E is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, while the area vector for the curved surface is parallel to the axis. Thus, E is perpendicular to the normal of the curved surface (θ = 90°). Therefore, Φ_curved = ∫ E . dS = ∫ E dS cos 90° = 0.
Flux through the two end caps (Φ_ends): For each end cap, the electric field E is parallel to the outward normal vector (θ = 0°).
- Flux through each end cap = E × A.
- Total flux through the two end caps = Φ_ends = E × A + E × A = 2EA.
Total Electric Flux (Φ_total) through the Gaussian surface:
- Φ_total =01].
Substituting the expressions for flux and enclosed charge:
- 2EA = σA / ε0
Solving for E:
- E = σ / (2ε0)

(7. Vector Form and Direction):

In vector form, E = (σ / (2ε0)) n̂, where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane and pointing away from it.
If σ is positive, E points away from the sheet. If σ is negative, E points towards the sheet.

This expression gives the electric field strength due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.

Q10: Using Gauss's Law, find the electric field at a point outside and inside a uniformly charged thin spherical shell. A10 (CBSE Best Scoring Answer): (1. Diagram): Draw a spherical shell of radius R with uniform surface charge density σ. Show concentric spherical Gaussian surfaces for both r > R and r < R. Indicate the radial direction of E.

(2. Symmetry of Electric Field):

For a uniformly charged thin spherical shell, the charge distribution has spherical symmetry.
Therefore, the electric field E at any point must be radial (pointing outwards if positive charge, inwards if negative).
The magnitude of E depends only on the radial distance 'r' from the center of the shell.

(3. Case 1: Point P outside the spherical shell (r > R))

Gaussian Surface: Choose a concentric spherical Gaussian surface of radius 'r' (where r > R) passing through point P.
Electric Flux (Φ):
- On this Gaussian surface, E is uniform in magnitude and everywhere radial (parallel to the outward normal vector dS).
- Φ = ∫ E . dS = E ∫ dS = E × (Surface Area of Gaussian Sphere) = E × 4πr^2.
Charge Enclosed (q_enclosed):
- The Gaussian surface encloses the entire charge of the spherical shell.
- The total charge on the shell is q = σ × (Surface Area of Shell) = σ × 4πR^2.
Applying Gauss's Law: Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
- E × 4πr^2 = (σ × 4πR^2) / ε0.
Solving for E:
- E = (σR^2) / (ε0r^2).
- Substituting q = σ4πR^2: E = q / (4πε0r^2).
Conclusion: For points outside a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric field is the same as if the entire charge 'q' were concentrated as a point charge at the center of the shell. In vector form, E = (q / (4πε0r^2)) r̂, where r̂ is a unit radial vector.

(4. Case 2: Point P inside the spherical shell (r < R))

Gaussian Surface: Choose a concentric spherical Gaussian surface of radius 'r' (where r < R) passing through point P.
Electric Flux (Φ):
- Similar to the outside case, Φ = E × 4πr^2.
Charge Enclosed (q_enclosed):
- Since the charge resides only on the surface of the shell, the Gaussian surface chosen inside the shell encloses no charge.
- Therefore, q_enclosed = 0.
Applying Gauss's Law: Φ = q_enclosed / ε0.
- E × 4πr^2 = 0 / ε0.
Solving for E:
- E = 0 (for r < R).
Conclusion: The electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.

Summary:

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

Electric Charge
- Two types: Positive and Negative
- Properties:
  - Additivity: Total charge is algebraic sum.
  - Quantization: $q = ne$ , where $n \in \mathbb{Z}$
  - Conservation: Total charge in a system remains constant.
Conductors and Insulators
- Conductors: Allow free movement of charges (e.g., metals)
- Insulators: Restrict movement of charges (e.g., rubber, glass)
Charging by Induction
- Redistribution of charge without contact.
Coulomb’s Law
- Force between two point charges:
  $F = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{q_1q_2}{r^2}$
- Acts along the line joining the charges.
- Vector form:
  $\vec{F}_{12} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{q_1q_2}{r^3} \vec{r}$
Principle of Superposition
- Net force on a charge = Vector sum of forces due to other charges.
Electric Field ( $\vec{E}$ )
- Force per unit positive charge:
  $\vec{E} = \frac{\vec{F}}{q}$
Electric Field Lines
- Start from +ve and end on –ve charge.
- Never intersect.
- Dense field lines = strong field.
Electric Field due to a Point Charge
$E = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{q}{r^2}$
Electric Dipole
- Two equal and opposite charges separated by distance $2a$
- Dipole Moment: $\vec{p} = q \cdot 2\vec{a}$
Electric Field due to Dipole
- Axial Line:
  $E = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{2p}{r^3}$
- Equatorial Line:
  $E = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{p}{r^3}$
Torque on a Dipole in Uniform Field
$\tau = \vec{p} \times \vec{E}$
Potential Energy of Dipole in Electric Field
$U = -\vec{p} \cdot \vec{E}$
Continuous Charge Distribution
- Linear charge density $\lambda = \frac{q}{L}$
- Surface charge density $\sigma = \frac{q}{A}$
- Volume charge density $\rho = \frac{q}{V}$
Gauss’s Law
$\oint \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = \frac{q_{\text{enclosed}}}{\varepsilon_0}$
- Total electric flux through a closed surface equals net charge enclosed divided by permittivity.

📐 Applications of Gauss’s Law

Electric Field due to an Infinite Line of Charge
$E = \frac{\lambda}{2\pi\varepsilon_0 r}$
Electric Field due to an Infinite Plane Sheet
$E = \frac{\sigma}{2\varepsilon_0}$
Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell
- Outside (r > R):
  $E = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{Q}{r^2}$
- Inside (r < R):
  $E = 0$

📘 NCERT Exercise Questions with Best Solutions (from Exercise 1.1)

Q1. What is the force between two charges of 1 C each placed 1 m apart?

Solution

F = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{q_1q_2}{r^2} = 9 \times 10^9 \cdot \frac{1 \cdot 1}{1^2} = 9 \times 10^9 \, \text{N}

Q2. What is the force between two charges of 1 μC and 2 μC placed 1 m apart in air?

Solution

F = 9 \times 10^9 \cdot \frac{(1 \times 10^{-6})(2 \times 10^{-6})}{1^2} = 18 \times 10^{-3} \, \text{N} = 0.018 \, \text{N}

Q3. Sketch electric field lines for a dipole.

Solution:

Field lines emerge from positive and terminate at negative charge.
Symmetric about the dipole axis.
Do not cross each other.
(Sketch recommended for exam)

Q4. State Gauss's Law. Derive expression for field due to an infinite line charge.

Solution:
Gauss’s Law: Total electric flux through a closed surface is:

\Phi_E = \oint \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = \frac{q_{\text{in}}}{\varepsilon_0}

Application to Infinite Line:

Use cylindrical Gaussian surface:
$E \cdot (2\pi rl) = \frac{\lambda l}{\varepsilon_0} \Rightarrow E = \frac{\lambda}{2\pi\varepsilon_0 r}$

📋 CBSE Previous Year Questions (PYQs) with Best Answers

🔹 Q (2023)

State Coulomb’s law. Explain force between two charges. (2 Marks)
Answer:
Coulomb’s law states that the force between two point charges $q_1$ and $q_2$ is directly proportional to product of charges and inversely proportional to square of distance $r$ between them:

F = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{q_1q_2}{r^2}

🔹 Q (2022)

Using Gauss’s law, derive expression for electric field due to a spherical shell of charge. (3 Marks)

Answer:
Case 1: Outside the shell (r > R):

E = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{Q}{r^2}

Case 2: Inside the shell (r < R):

E = 0

Explanation: No charge is enclosed inside the Gaussian surface.

🔹 Q (2020)

What is an electric dipole? Derive electric field on axial line. (3 Marks)

Answer:
An electric dipole consists of charges +q and -q separated by distance 2a.
At axial point P distance r from center:

E = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \cdot \frac{2p}{r^3}

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Electric Charges & Fields | Concepts, Derivations & NCERT Solutions Class 12

Chapter One: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Here are the main points from the provided sources on electric charges and fields, organized with headings and subheadings:

Chapter One: Electric Charges and Fields

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Electric Charge

1.3 Conductors and Insulators

1.4 Basic Properties of Electric Charge

1.5 Coulomb’s Law

1.6 Forces Between Multiple Charges (Principle of Superposition)

1.7 Electric Field

1.8 Electric Field Lines

1.9 Electric Flux

1.10 Electric Dipole

1.11 Dipole in a Uniform External Field

1.12 Continuous Charge Distribution

1.13 Gauss’s Law

1.14 Applications of Gauss’s Law

Summary of Key Concepts (from source's summary)

Points to Ponder

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 ELECTRIC CHARGE

1.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

1.4 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

1.4.1 Additivity of Charges

1.4.2 Charge is Conserved

1.4.3 Quantisation of Charge

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

1.5 COULOMB’S LAW

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

1.6 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

1.7 ELECTRIC FIELD

1.7.1 Electric field due to a system of charges

1.7.2 Physical significance of electric field

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

1.8 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

1.9 ELECTRIC FLUX

1.10 ELECTRIC DIPOLE

1.10.1 The field of an electric dipole

1.10.2 Physical significance of dipoles

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

1.11 DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

1.12 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

1.13 GAUSS’S LAW

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

1.14 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

1.14.1 Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire

1.14.2 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

1.14.3 Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

Exercises (Solved Examples from Text):

SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAS

EXERCISES (FROM THE SOURCE) AND SOLUTIONS

CBSE PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS AND BEST SCORING ANSWERS

Summary:

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

📐 Applications of Gauss’s Law

📘 NCERT Exercise Questions with Best Solutions (from Exercise 1.1)

Q1. What is the force between two charges of 1 C each placed 1 m apart?

Q2. What is the force between two charges of 1 μC and 2 μC placed 1 m apart in air?

Q3. Sketch electric field lines for a dipole.

Q4. State Gauss's Law. Derive expression for field due to an infinite line charge.

📋 CBSE Previous Year Questions (PYQs) with Best Answers

🔹 Q (2023)

🔹 Q (2022)

🔹 Q (2020)

✅ SEO Labels (comma-separated):

✅ #Hashtags (comma-separated):

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