Rise of Nationalism in Europe – Class 10 CBSE Detailed Notes | Chapter 1 History

Rise Of Nationalism In Europe of Class 10

Introduction

This chapter tries to explain the meaning of nationalism and how nationalism evolved in mankind’s history. Starting with French Revolution the nationalism spread to other parts of Europe and later on paved the way for development of modern democratic nations across the world.

Credit: NCERT GRADE X CBSE TEXT BOOK

Subject	Social Science (History)
Class	10
Board	CBSE
Chapter No.	1
Chapter Name	The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Type	Notes
Session	2025-26
Weightage	6 marks

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Frederic Sorrieu’s Painting
• The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
• The Making of Nationalism in Europe
• The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
• The Making of Germany and Italy
• Visualising the Nation
• Nationalism and Imperialism

Here are the important pointers from the provided sources, detailed with headings, subheadings, and examples for clarity:

1. The Concept of the Nation-State and Nationalism

• Frédéric Sorrieu's Utopian Vision (1848)

  • French artist Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of four prints depicting his dream of a world composed of 'democratic and social Republics'.
  • The first print shows people of Europe and America, from all ages and social classes, marching in a procession and paying homage to the Statue of Liberty.
  • The Statue of Liberty is personified as a female figure holding the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
  • In the foreground, shattered remains of symbols of absolutist institutions lie on the ground.
  • Sorrieu's vision depicted peoples grouped as distinct nations, identifiable by their flags and national costumes.
  • Leading the procession were the United States and Switzerland, which were already nation-states.
  • France followed, identifiable by its revolutionary tricolour flag, having just reached the statue.
  • The peoples of Germany followed, bearing a black, red, and gold flag, which, at the time, represented liberal hopes for a unified German nation-state under a democratic constitution.
  • Other nations in the procession included Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia.
  • Christ, saints, and angels observed from the heavens, symbolizing fraternity among nations.
  • Sorrieu's vision is considered utopian, meaning an ideal society unlikely to exist.

• Defining a Nation and Nation-State

  • Nationalism emerged in the nineteenth century as a force that brought significant changes in Europe's political and mental landscape.
  • The result was the emergence of the nation-state, replacing multi-national dynastic empires.
  • A modern state is characterized by a centralized power exercising sovereign control over a defined territory.
  • A nation-state is one where the majority of its citizens, not just rulers, develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.
  • This commonness was not inherent but forged through struggles and the actions of leaders and common people.

• Ernst Renan's Understanding of a Nation

  • In an 1882 lecture, French philosopher Ernst Renan criticized the idea that a nation is formed by a common language, race, religion, or territory.
  • Attributes of a Nation (according to Renan):
    • A culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice, and devotion.
    • Based on a "social capital" of a heroic past, great men, and glory.
    • Essential conditions include common glories in the past, a common will in the present, having performed great deeds together, and the desire to perform still more.
    • Defined as a large-scale solidarity.
    • Its existence is a "daily plebiscite," meaning a daily affirmation of its inhabitants' will.
    • Renan stated that a nation has no real interest in annexing or holding a country against its will, emphasizing the inhabitants' right to be consulted.
  • Importance of Nations (according to Renan):
    • Their existence is a good thing, even a necessity.
    • They are a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and one master.

2. The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

• First Expression of Nationalism: The French Revolution in 1789 marked the first clear expression of nationalism.
• Shift in Sovereignty: Political and constitutional changes transferred sovereignty from the absolute monarchy to a body of French citizens. The people would now constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
• Measures to Create Collective Identity:
  • Ideas of 'la patrie' (the fatherland) and 'le citoyen' (the citizen) emphasized a united community with equal rights under a constitution.
  • A new French flag, the tricolour, replaced the former royal standard.
  • The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
  • New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.
  • A centralized administrative system implemented uniform laws.
  • Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
  • Regional dialects were discouraged, and French (as spoken in Paris) became the common language.
• Mission to Liberate Europe: French revolutionaries declared it their destiny to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism and help them become nations.
• Spread of Nationalism: News of events in France led to the formation of Jacobin clubs by educated middle classes across Europe. French armies, moving into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s, carried the idea of nationalism abroad.

3. Napoleon's Impact on Administration and Nationalism

• Administrative Reforms (Napoleonic Code of 1804):
  • While Napoleon destroyed democracy by returning to monarchy, he incorporated revolutionary principles to make the administrative system rational and efficient.
  • The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to property.
  • This code was exported to French-controlled regions like the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.
  • He simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
  • Guild restrictions were removed in towns, and transport and communication systems improved.
  • Businessmen and small-scale producers supported uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency for easier movement of goods and capital.
• Mixed Reactions to French Rule:
  • Initially, French armies were welcomed as "harbingers of liberty" in places like Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw.
  • However, enthusiasm turned to hostility as new administrative arrangements did not equate to political freedom.
  • Increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into French armies outweighed the advantages of administrative changes, leading to discontent. Examples include the depiction of French soldiers as oppressors in Zweibrücken, seizing carts and harassing women.

4. Europe Before Nation-States and Social Structures

• Fragmented Europe: Mid-eighteenth-century Europe lacked nation-states as we know them today.

  • Regions like Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into numerous kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers.
  • Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies, comprising diverse peoples who did not share a collective identity, culture, or often even language.

• The Habsburg Empire Example:

  • This empire over Austria-Hungary was a "patchwork" of many different regions and peoples.
  • Included Alpine regions (Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland) and Bohemia, where aristocracy was German-speaking.
  • Included Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
  • In Hungary, half the population spoke Magyar, the other half various dialects.
  • In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.
  • Vast numbers of subject peasant peoples (Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Roumans) lived within its boundaries.
  • The only unifying factor among these diverse groups was a common allegiance to the emperor.

• Social Classes in Europe:

  • Aristocracy: Dominant class, united by a common lifestyle, owned estates and town-houses, spoke French for diplomacy, families connected by marriage. Numerically a small group.
  • Peasantry: Majority of the population. In the West, land farmed by tenants and small owners; in Eastern and Central Europe, vast estates cultivated by serfs.
  • New Middle Class: Emerged with industrial production and trade, composed of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals. This educated, liberal group popularized ideas of national unity and the abolition of aristocratic privileges.

5. Liberal Nationalism and Economic Changes

• Ideology of Liberalism:
  • Closely allied with ideas of national unity in early 19th-century Europe.
  • Derived from Latin 'liber' (meaning free).
  • For the new middle classes, liberalism stood for:
    • Freedom for the individual.
    • Equality of all before the law.
    • Politically: Government by consent, end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution, and representative government through parliament.
    • Stressed the inviolability of private property.
• Suffrage (Right to Vote):
  • Equality before the law did not mean universal suffrage.
  • In revolutionary France, political rights were limited to property-owning men; men without property and all women were excluded.
  • Briefly, under the Jacobins, all adult males enjoyed suffrage.
  • The Napoleonic Code reverted to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of minors, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
  • Women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Economic Liberalism:
  • Stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
  • This was a strong demand from the emerging middle classes.
  • Example of German-speaking regions: Napoleon created a confederation of 39 states, each with its own currency, weights, and measures. Merchants faced numerous customs barriers (e.g., 11 barriers from Hamburg to Nuremberg, paying 5% duty at each) and time-consuming calculations due to differing units of measurement (e.g., 'elle' for cloth varied significantly by region).
  • Zollverein (Customs Union):
    • Formed in 1834 at Prussia's initiative, joined by most German states.
    • Abolished tariff barriers.
    • Reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
    • Stimulated mobility and economic exchange, harnessing economic interests to national unification.
    • Friedrich List, a Professor of Economics, stated that the Zollverein aimed to bind Germans economically into a nation, strengthening it materially and stimulating internal productivity, thereby awakening national sentiment.

6. Conservatism After 1815

• Conservative Ideals:
  • Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European governments embraced conservatism.
  • Conservatives believed in preserving established, traditional institutions like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family.
  • Most recognized that modernization (e.g., modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, abolition of feudalism/serfdom) could actually strengthen autocratic monarchies.
• The Congress of Vienna (1815):
  • Representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria met at Vienna, hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
  • Objective: To undo most changes from the Napoleonic Wars.
  • Key Outcomes:
    • The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France, and France lost territories annexed under Napoleon.
    • A series of buffer states were set up around France to prevent future expansion (e.g., Kingdom of Netherlands with Belgium to the north, Genoa added to Piedmont in the south).
    • Prussia received new territories on its western frontiers, and Austria gained control of northern Italy.
    • The German confederation of 39 states (established by Napoleon) was left untouched.
    • Russia gained part of Poland, and Prussia gained a portion of Saxony.
    • Main intention was to restore overthrown monarchies and create a new conservative order in Europe.
• Autocratic Conservative Regimes:
  • Established in 1815, these regimes were autocratic, tolerating no criticism or dissent.
  • They imposed censorship laws on newspapers, books, plays, and songs that reflected ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.
  • Despite suppression, the memory of the French Revolution continued to inspire liberals, who notably demanded freedom of the press. Caricatures like "The Club of Thinkers" highlighted the suppression of free thought.

7. The Revolutionaries and Secret Societies

• Underground Movements: Fear of repression post-1815 drove liberal-nationalists underground.
  • Secret societies emerged across Europe to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
  • Being a revolutionary meant opposing monarchical forms established after the Vienna Congress and fighting for liberty and freedom.
  • They viewed the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle.
• Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872):
  • An Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa.
  • Member of the secret society Carbonari.
  • Exiled in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
  • Founded two more underground societies:
    • Young Italy in Marseilles.
    • Young Europe in Berne, with like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.
  • Mazzini believed that God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
  • He argued that Italy, being a "patchwork of small states and kingdoms," had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations, as this was the basis of Italian liberty.
  • His model inspired secret societies in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
  • His opposition to monarchy and vision of democratic republics frightened conservatives; Metternich called him "the most dangerous enemy of our social order".

8. The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• Liberal-Nationalist Revolutions: As conservative regimes consolidated power, liberalism and nationalism became increasingly linked to revolutions in regions like the Italian and German states, Ottoman Empire provinces, Ireland, and Poland.
  • These were led by educated middle-class elites (professors, school-teachers, clerks, commercial middle classes).
• The July Revolution (France, 1830):
  • Overthrew the Bourbon kings, who had been restored after 1815.
  • Installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head.
  • Metternich famously remarked, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold," highlighting its influence.
  • Sparked an uprising in Brussels, leading to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• The Greek War of Independence (began 1821):
  • Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.
  • Revolutionary nationalism in Europe fueled a struggle for independence among Greeks.
  • Supported by exiled Greeks and West Europeans sympathetic to ancient Greek culture.
  • Poets and artists glorified Greece as the "cradle of European civilisation," mobilizing public opinion against the Muslim empire.
  • Lord Byron, an English poet, organized funds and fought, dying in 1824.
  • The Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognized Greece as an independent nation.
• The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling:
  • Culture played a vital role in creating the idea of the nation, through art, poetry, stories, and music.
  • Romanticism: A cultural movement that sought to develop nationalist sentiment, often by criticizing the glorification of reason and science.
    • Focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings.
    • Aimed to create a sense of a shared collective heritage and a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.
  • Johann Gottfried Herder (German philosopher): Claimed true German culture ('das volk') was found among common people and popularized through folk songs, poetry, and dances ('volksgeist').
  • The Grimm Brothers:
    • Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm collected old folktales (e.g., Grimms’ Fairy Tales) and published a 33-volume dictionary of the German language.
    • They saw French domination as a threat and believed folktales expressed a "pure and authentic German spirit".
    • Their projects contributed to opposing French domination and creating a German national identity.
  • Importance of Vernacular Language and Folklore:
    • Not just to recover an ancient national spirit but also to carry modern nationalist messages to largely illiterate audiences.
    • Poland Example: Though partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, national feelings were kept alive through music and language.
      • Karol Kurpinski used operas and music to celebrate the national struggle, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
      • After Russian occupation, Polish was forced out of schools and Russian imposed.
      • During an 1831 armed rebellion, the clergy used Polish as a weapon of national resistance for Church gatherings and religious instruction, leading to imprisonment or exile.
      • The use of Polish became a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
• Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt (1830s-1848):
  • The 1830s saw economic hardship due to increased population, job scarcity, overcrowding in cities, and competition from cheap machine-made English goods.
  • Peasants in aristocratic regions suffered under feudal dues.
  • Food price rises or bad harvests led to widespread poverty.
  • The 1848 Revolutions (Paris): Food shortages and unemployment led to protests, Louis Philippe fled, a Republic was proclaimed, and universal male suffrage (for males over 21) and the right to work were granted.
  • Silesian Weavers' Revolt (1845): Weavers revolted against contractors who drastically reduced their payments, leading to violence, property destruction, and the shooting of eleven weavers by the army.
• 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals (Frankfurt Parliament):
  • Educated middle classes in places without independent nation-states combined demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
  • They sought a nation-state based on parliamentary principles, with a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.
  • German Regions: Political associations of middle-class professionals, businessmen, and artisans met in Frankfurt.
  • On May 18, 1848, 831 elected representatives convened the Frankfurt Parliament in the Church of St Paul.
  • They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
  • King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia rejected the crown offered on these terms and joined other monarchs to oppose the assembly.
  • The parliament, dominated by the middle classes, alienated workers and artisans by resisting their demands, losing their support. Troops were called in, and the assembly disbanded.
• Women's Rights in the Liberal Movement:
  • The issue of political rights for women was controversial.
  • Women actively participated, forming political associations, founding newspapers, and taking part in meetings and demonstrations.
  • Despite their activism, they were denied suffrage rights in elections and were only admitted as observers in the visitors' gallery during the Frankfurt Parliament.
  • Differing Views:
    • Carl Welcker (liberal politician): Argued for distinct functions for men (protector, provider, public tasks) and women (home, children, family care), claiming equality would endanger harmony.
    • Louise Otto-Peters (feminist activist): Founded a women's journal, stating that "Liberty is indivisible" and free men should not tolerate unfree women.
    • Anonymous reader: Criticized the injustice of denying political rights to talented, property-owning women while allowing "stupidest cattle-herder" to vote simply for being a man.
• Concessions from Monarchs: Though conservative forces suppressed liberal movements in 1848, they realized cycles of revolution could only end with concessions.
  • Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in Habsburg dominions and Russia.
  • Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to Hungarians in 1867.

9. The Unification of Germany and Italy

• Post-1848 Nationalism: Shifted from liberal-democratic ideals to promoting state power and political domination, often manipulated by conservatives.
• Germany – Unification:
  • Middle-class liberals' 1848 attempt at unification was repressed by the monarchy, military, and large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.
  • Prussia took leadership of the national unification movement.
  • Otto von Bismarck: Prussia's Chief Minister, was the architect of unification, carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
  • Process of Unification: Three wars over seven years (with Austria, Denmark, and France) ended in Prussian victory.
  • Proclamation of German Empire (January 1871): Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles.
  • The nation-building process showcased the dominance of Prussian state power.
  • The new German state emphasized modernizing currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems, with Prussian practices often becoming a model.
• Italy – Unification:
  • Italy had a long history of political fragmentation, divided into seven states.
  • Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
  • Northern Italy was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center by the Pope, and the southern regions by Bourbon kings of Spain.
  • The Italian language had many regional variations.
  • Giuseppe Mazzini: Had worked on a program for a unitary Italian Republic and formed Young Italy, but revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 failed.
  • Sardinia-Piedmont (under King Victor Emmanuel II) took on the task of unifying Italy through war, aiming for economic development and political dominance.
  • Chief Minister Cavour: Led the unification movement. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat and spoke French better than Italian.
    • Engineered a diplomatic alliance with France, leading to the defeat of Austrian forces in 1859.
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi:
    • Joined Mazzini's Young Italy movement in 1833 and participated in a republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834, leading to his exile.
    • Returned in 1848 and later supported Victor Emmanuel II.
    • In 1860, he led the "Expedition of the Thousand" (popularly known as Red Shirts), armed volunteers who marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
    • They gained support from local peasants to drive out Spanish rulers.
    • In 1867, Garibaldi led an army to Rome against Papal States (protected by French garrison) but was defeated.
    • In 1870, when France withdrew its troops during the war with Prussia, the Papal States finally joined Italy.
  • United Italy Proclaimed (1861): Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
  • Many illiterate peasants in southern Italy, who supported Garibaldi, were unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology and mistakenly believed 'La Talia' (Italia) was Victor Emmanuel's wife.
• The "Strange Case" of Britain:
  • Formation of the British nation-state was not a sudden revolution but a long, gradual process.
  • Before the 18th century, primary identities were ethnic (English, Welsh, Scot, Irish), each with their own cultural and political traditions.
  • The English nation steadily grew in wealth and power, extending its influence.
  • The English Parliament, which seized power from the monarchy in 1688, became the instrument for forging a nation-state with England at its center.
  • Act of Union (1707): Between England and Scotland, forming the "United Kingdom of Great Britain." This allowed England to impose its influence on Scotland.
    • The British Parliament became English-dominated.
    • Scottish distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed; Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak Gaelic or wear national dress, and many were forcibly displaced.
  • Ireland: Deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants, the English helped Protestants dominate.
    • Catholic revolts against British dominance (e.g., Wolfe Tone's failed revolt in 1798) were suppressed.
    • Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
  • A new "British nation" was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture.
  • Symbols of the new Britain (Union Jack, "God Save Our Noble King," English language) were actively promoted, while older nations survived as subordinate partners.

10. Visualising the Nation

• Personification of Nations (Allegory):
  • Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries personified nations as if they were individuals, typically female figures.
  • This female form did not represent a real woman but gave a concrete form to the abstract idea of the nation, becoming an allegory.
• French Allegories: During the French Revolution, artists used female allegories for ideas like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic.
  • Liberty's attributes: Red cap, broken chain.
  • Justice's attributes: Blindfolded woman carrying weighing scales.
  • Marianne: The female allegory for the French nation, a popular Christian name emphasizing a "people's nation".
    • Her characteristics were derived from Liberty and the Republic: red cap, tricolour, cockade.
    • Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares, and her images marked on coins and stamps, to symbolize national unity and encourage identification.
• German Allegories:
  • Germania: The allegory for the German nation.
    • Wore a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak symbolized heroism.
    • Symbols associated with Germania and their meanings:
      • Broken chains: Being freed.
      • Breastplate with eagle: Symbol of the German empire – strength.
      • Crown of oak leaves: Heroism.
      • Sword: Readiness to fight.
      • Olive branch around the sword: Willingness to make peace.
      • Black, red, and gold tricolour: Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, later banned by German Dukes.
      • Rays of the rising sun: Beginning of a new era.

11. Nationalism and Imperialism

• Shift in Nationalism (Late 19th Century):
  • Nationalism lost its idealistic, liberal-democratic sentiment and became a narrow creed with limited ends.
  • Nationalist groups grew intolerant and prone to war.
  • Major European powers exploited nationalist aspirations of subject peoples to further their own imperialist goals.
• The Balkans – A Source of Tension:
  • The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the Balkan region.
  • Geography and Ethnicity: Comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro; inhabitants broadly known as Slavs.
  • A large part was under the Ottoman Empire.
  • The spread of romantic nationalism combined with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made the region explosive.
  • Ottoman attempts at modernization and reform largely failed.
  • European subject nationalities broke away and declared independence, basing claims on nationality and historical subjugation by foreign powers. They viewed their struggles as attempts to regain lost independence.
  • Intense Conflict and Rivalry: Balkan states were fiercely jealous, each seeking to gain more territory at the expense of others.
  • The Balkans became a scene of big power rivalry (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary), all keen on countering other powers' influence and extending their own control.
  • This competition led to a series of wars in the region and ultimately the First World War.
• Nationalism's Global Impact:
  • Nationalism, when aligned with imperialism, led to disaster in Europe in 1914.
  • Meanwhile, colonized countries in the 19th century began to oppose imperial domination.
  • Anti-imperial movements were nationalist, struggling to form independent nation-states, inspired by collective national unity forged against imperialism.
  • While European ideas of nationalism were not perfectly replicated, the concept of societies organizing into 'nation-states' became widely accepted as natural and universal.

MEANING OF NATIONALISM:

Nationalism is the idea of a sense of common identity and a sense of belongingness to a particular geographical area. 

• Apart from this it is also a sense of attachment to a particular culture. 
• It should be kept in mind that culture encompasses a variety of factors, like language, cuisine, costumes, folklores, etc.

I. Events and Processes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

• Frédéric Sorrieu's Utopian Vision (1848)

  • Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, created a series of four prints in 1848, visualising his dream of a world composed of 'democratic and social Republics'.
  • The first print (Fig. 1) shows peoples of Europe and America, including men and women of all ages and social classes, marching in a long train.
  • They are seen offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
  • Liberty is personified as a female figure holding the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
  • In the foreground, the shattered remains of symbols of absolutist institutions lie on the earth.
  • Sorrieu's utopian vision groups the peoples of the world as distinct nations, identified by their flags and national costumes.
  • The United States and Switzerland lead the procession, having already become nation-states by this time.
  • France, identified by its revolutionary tricolour, has just reached the statue.
  • It is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, red, and gold flag, which was an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under a democratic constitution.
  • Following the German peoples are those of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia.
  • Christ, saints, and angels gaze from the heavens, used by the artist to symbolize fraternity among the nations of the world.

• Emergence of the Nation-State

  • During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a powerful force that brought about sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe.
  • The ultimate result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state, replacing the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
  • A modern state is defined by a centralized power exercising sovereign control over a clearly defined territory.
  • A nation-state is one where the majority of its citizens, not just rulers, developed a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.
  • This commonness was not inherent but forged through struggles and the actions of leaders and common people.

II. The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

• Birth of Nationalism in France (1789)

  • The French Revolution in 1789 marked the first clear expression of nationalism.
  • Prior to this, France was a full-fledged territorial state under an absolute monarch.
  • The revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens, proclaiming that the people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

• Measures for Collective Identity

  • French revolutionaries introduced various measures to create a sense of collective identity among the French people:
    • The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized a united community with equal rights under a constitution.
    • A new French tricolour flag was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
    • The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
    • New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
    • A centralized administrative system was established, formulating uniform laws for all citizens.
    • Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
    • Regional dialects were discouraged, and French (as spoken in Paris) became the common language of the nation.
  • The revolutionaries declared it the mission of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism, helping them become nations.

• Spread of Nationalism Abroad

  • News of events in France led students and educated middle-class members across Europe to set up Jacobin clubs.
  • These activities prepared the way for French armies, which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and much of Italy in the 1790s.
  • With the outbreak of revolutionary wars, French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

III. Napoleon's Administrative Reforms

• Incorporating Revolutionary Principles

  • Although Napoleon destroyed democracy in France by returning to monarchy, he incorporated revolutionary principles into the administrative field to make the system more rational and efficient.

• The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code)

  • Abolished all privileges based on birth.
  • Established equality before the law.
  • Secured the right to property.
  • This Code was exported to regions under French control, including the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.

• Reforms in Conquered Territories

  • Simplified administrative divisions.
  • Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
  • Removed guild restrictions in towns.
  • Improved transport and communication systems.
  • Peasants, artisans, workers, and new businessmen enjoyed new-found freedom.
  • Businessmen realized that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital.

• Mixed Reactions to French Rule

  • Initially, French armies were welcomed as "harbingers of liberty" in many places like Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw.
  • However, this initial enthusiasm turned to hostility as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not equate to political freedom.
  • Factors that outweighed the advantages of administrative changes included increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into the French armies to conquer the rest of Europe.

IV. Europe Before Nation-States and the Rise of New Social Classes

• Fragmented Europe in the Mid-18th Century

  • There were no 'nation-states' as we know them today.
  • Regions like Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into numerous kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers.
  • Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies, comprising diverse peoples who did not share a collective identity or common culture.
  • Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary):
    • A "patchwork" of many different regions and peoples.
    • Included Alpine regions (Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland) and Bohemia (predominantly German-speaking aristocracy).
    • Comprised Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
    • In Hungary, half the population spoke Magyar, while the other half spoke various dialects.
    • In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.
    • It also housed a mass of subject peasant peoples, including Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, and Roumans.
    • These differences hindered political unity; the only binding tie was common allegiance to the emperor.

• Social Structure and the New Middle Class

  • The Aristocracy:
    • Socially and politically the dominant class on the continent, united by a common way of life across regional divisions.
    • Owned estates in the countryside and town-houses, spoke French for diplomacy and in high society, and their families were often connected by marriage.
    • Numerically, they were a small group.
  • The Peasantry:
    • Comprised the majority of the population.
    • In the west, land was farmed by tenants and small owners; in Eastern and Central Europe, vast estates were cultivated by serfs.
  • The New Middle Class:
    • Emergence due to the growth of industrial production and trade in Western and Central Europe.
    • Industrialization began in England in the late 18th century, and in France and German states during the 19th century.
    • Led to the creation of new social groups: a working-class population and middle classes consisting of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
    • These groups were smaller in number in Central and Eastern Europe until the late 19th century.
    • Ideas of national unity, particularly after the abolition of aristocratic privileges, gained popularity among the educated, liberal middle classes.

V. Liberal Nationalism

• Core Principles

  • Ideas of national unity in early-19th-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism.
  • The term 'liberalism' derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
  • For the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
  • Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent.
  • Since the French Revolution, liberalism advocated for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution, and representative government through parliament.
  • 19th-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.

• Limitations on Suffrage

  • Equality before the law did not necessarily mean universal suffrage (the right to vote).
  • In revolutionary France, the right to vote and be elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.
  • Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights, except for a brief period under the Jacobins when all adult males enjoyed suffrage.
  • The Napoleonic Code reverted to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
  • Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

• Economic Liberalism and the Zollverein

  • In the economic sphere, liberalism advocated for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. This was a strong demand from the emerging middle classes.
  • Economic Fragmentation Example (German-speaking regions):
    • Napoleon's administrative measures created a confederation of 39 states from countless small principalities.
    • Each of these states had its own currency, weights, and measures.
    • A merchant travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg in 1833 would face 11 customs barriers, paying about 5% duty at each.
    • Duties were based on weight or measurement, and each region had its own system, leading to time-consuming calculations (e.g., the elle for cloth varied significantly by city).
  • Creation of the Zollverein:
    • These conditions were seen as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by commercial classes, who argued for a unified economic territory.
    • In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at Prussia's initiative, joined by most German states.
    • The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
    • A network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification.
    • This wave of economic nationalism strengthened wider nationalist sentiments.
    • Friedrich List, a Professor of Economics, stated in 1834 that the zollverein's aim was to bind Germans economically into a nation, strengthening it materially and stimulating internal productivity, thereby awakening national sentiment.

VI. A New Conservatism after 1815

• Conservative Ideology

  • Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
  • Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – such as the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family – should be preserved.
  • Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to pre-revolutionary society; they realized that modernization could strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
  • A modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could make state power more effective and autocratic monarchies stronger.

• The Congress of Vienna (1815)

  • Representatives of the European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) who had collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna.
  • The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
  • The delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the objective of undoing most of the changes brought about during the Napoleonic wars.
  • Key Outcomes:
    • The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France, and France lost territories annexed under Napoleon.
    • A series of states were set up on France's boundaries to prevent future expansion (e.g., Kingdom of the Netherlands including Belgium in the north, Genoa added to Piedmont in the south).
    • Prussia received important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria gained control of northern Italy.
    • The German confederation of 39 states (set up by Napoleon) was left untouched.
    • In the east, Russia received part of Poland, and Prussia received a portion of Saxony.
    • The main intention was to restore the monarchies overthrown by Napoleon and create a new conservative order in Europe.

• Autocratic Regimes and Repression

  • Conservative regimes established in 1815 were autocratic.
  • They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb activities that questioned their legitimacy.
  • Most imposed censorship laws to control information in newspapers, books, plays, and songs that reflected ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.
  • Despite this, the memory of the French Revolution continued to inspire liberals, and freedom of the press became a major issue for liberal-nationalists who criticized the new conservative order.

VII. The Revolutionaries

• Secret Societies and Goals

  • Following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground.
  • Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
  • To be a revolutionary meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms established after the Vienna Congress and to fight for liberty and freedom.
  • Most revolutionaries also viewed the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle.

• Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)

  • An influential Italian revolutionary born in Genoa.
  • He was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
  • Exiled in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
  • Subsequently founded two more underground societies: Young Italy in Marseilles, and Young Europe in Berne.
  • Members of Young Europe were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.
  • Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
  • He argued that Italy could not remain a patchwork of small states and kingdoms but had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations, believing this unification was the basis of Italian liberty.
  • His model inspired the setting up of secret societies in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
  • His relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened conservatives; Metternich famously described him as "the most dangerous enemy of our social order".

VIII. The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• Liberal-Nationalist Revolutions

  • As conservative regimes consolidated power, liberalism and nationalism became increasingly associated with revolution in regions like the Italian and German states, Ottoman Empire provinces, Ireland, and Poland.
  • These revolutions were led by educated middle-class elites, including professors, school-teachers, clerks, and members of commercial middle classes.

• The July Revolution in France (1830)

  • The first upheaval occurred in France in July 1830.
  • The Bourbon kings, who had been restored to power after 1815, were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.
  • A constitutional monarchy was installed with Louis Philippe at its head.
  • Metternich famously remarked, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold," highlighting the influence of French events.
  • This revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels, leading to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

• The Greek War of Independence (began 1821)

  • An event that mobilized nationalist feelings across Europe was the Greek war of independence.
  • Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.
  • The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence among the Greeks, which began in 1821.
  • Nationalists in Greece received support from exiled Greeks and many West Europeans who sympathized with ancient Greek culture.
  • Poets and artists lauded Greece as the "cradle of European civilisation" and mobilized public opinion against the Muslim empire.
  • The English poet Lord Byron organized funds and fought in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.
  • Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.

IX. The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

• Culture's Role in Nationalism

  • The development of nationalism was not solely through wars and territorial expansion; culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation.
  • Art, poetry, stories, and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.

• Romanticism as a Cultural Movement

  • Romanticism was a cultural movement that sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
  • Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science.
  • Instead, they focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings.
  • Their goal was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

• Johann Gottfried Herder and Das Volk

  • The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture (das volk) was to be discovered among the common people.
  • He believed that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularized through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances.
  • Collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential for nation-building.

• The Grimm Brothers: Folktales and Nation-building

  • Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (born 1785, 1786) developed an interest in collecting old folktales, spending six years travelling to villages and writing down fairy tales.
  • They published their first collection in 1812.
  • They were active in liberal politics and also published a 33-volume dictionary of the German language.
  • The brothers saw French domination as a threat to German culture.
  • They believed the folktales they collected were expressions of a "pure and authentic German spirit" and viewed their projects as part of a wider effort to oppose French domination and create a German national identity.

• Language and Popular Traditions as Resistance

  • Emphasis on vernacular language and folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit but also to carry the modern nationalist message to largely illiterate audiences.
  • Poland's Example:
    • Despite being partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria at the end of the 18th century, national feelings were kept alive through music and language.
    • Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, transforming folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
    • After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian was imposed.
    • Following an armed rebellion in 1831 (which was crushed), many Polish clergy members began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
    • Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.
    • A large number of priests and bishops were jailed or sent to Siberia by Russian authorities for refusing to preach in Russian.
    • The use of Polish became a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

X. Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt (1830s-1848)

• Economic Hardship in the 1830s

  • The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
  • There was an enormous increase in population, leading to more job seekers than available employment.
  • Population migrated from rural areas to cities, resulting in overcrowded slums.
  • Small producers in towns faced stiff competition from cheap machine-made goods imported from England, where industrialization was more advanced. This was particularly true in textile production, which was largely home-based and only partly mechanized.
  • In regions where the aristocracy held power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
  • A rise in food prices or a bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in both urban and rural areas.

• The 1848 Revolutions

  • The year 1848 saw food shortages and widespread unemployment, which brought the population of Paris out onto the roads.
  • Barricades were erected, and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
  • The National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work, setting up national workshops for employment.

• The Silesian Weavers' Revolt (1845)

  • In 1845, weavers in Silesia led a revolt against contractors who drastically reduced their payments for raw materials and finished textiles.
  • Wilhelm Wolff, a journalist, described the extreme misery of the workers due to contractors exploiting the desperate need for jobs to reduce prices.
  • On June 4th, a large crowd of weavers marched to the contractor's mansion demanding higher wages but were met with scorn.
  • A group forced entry, smashing property and plundering cloth supplies.
  • The contractor fled and returned 24 hours later with the army, resulting in eleven weavers being shot during the exchange.

XI. 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• Middle-Class Demands

  • Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed, and starving, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway in 1848.
  • In France (February 1848), the abdication of the monarch led to a republic based on universal male suffrage.
  • In other parts of Europe (Germany, Italy, Poland, Austro-Hungarian Empire) where independent nation-states didn't exist, liberal middle classes combined demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
  • They leveraged popular unrest to push for the creation of a nation-state based on parliamentary principles, including a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.

• The Frankfurt Parliament (1848)

  • In the German regions, numerous political associations of middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans convened in Frankfurt.
  • They decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
  • On May 18, 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to the Frankfurt parliament, convened in the Church of St Paul.
  • They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
  • However, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected the crown offered on these terms and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
  • The opposition from the aristocracy and military strengthened, while the social basis of the parliament eroded as the middle classes, who dominated it, resisted the demands of workers and artisans, losing their support.
  • Ultimately, troops were called in, and the assembly was forced to disband.

• The Issue of Women's Political Rights

  • The extension of political rights to women was a controversial issue within the liberal movement, despite active participation by large numbers of women.
  • Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.
  • Despite their efforts, they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly.
  • When the Frankfurt parliament convened, women were admitted only as observers in the visitors' gallery.
  • Differing Views:
    • Carl Welcker (liberal politician): Argued that nature created men and women for different functions; men for public tasks, women for home and family. He believed equality would endanger harmony and destroy family dignity.
    • Louise Otto-Peters (feminist activist): Founded a women's journal, stating "Liberty is indivisible!" and arguing that free men should not tolerate being surrounded by the unfree, criticizing men who fought for liberty for only one half of humanity.
    • Anonymous reader (1850): Pointed out the injustice and ridicule of denying women political rights despite their right to property and contributions to the state, while even "the stupidest cattle-herder" could vote simply for being a man.

• Conservative Concessions (Post-1848)

  • While conservative forces initially suppressed liberal movements in 1848, they could not restore the old order.
  • Monarchs realized that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by granting concessions to liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
  • After 1848, autocratic monarchies in Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce reforms that had already occurred in Western Europe before 1815.
  • This included the abolition of serfdom and bonded labor in both the Habsburg dominions and Russia.
  • The Habsburg rulers also granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

XII. The Making of Germany and Italy

• Shift in Nationalism (Post-1848)

  • After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution.
  • Nationalist sentiments were often mobilized by conservatives to promote state power and achieve political domination over Europe.

• Germany – Unification by the Army

  • In 1848, middle-class Germans attempted to unite the German Confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament, but this liberal initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.
  • From then on, Prussia took leadership of the movement for national unification.
  • Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process, carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
  • Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark, and France – ended in Prussian victory, completing the unification process.
  • In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
  • The proclamation of the new German Empire took place on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.
  • The nation-building process in Germany demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power.
  • The new state emphasized modernizing the currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems; Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

• Italy – Unified Through War

  • Like Germany, Italy had a long history of political fragmentation.
  • Italians were scattered over several dynastic states and the multi-national Habsburg Empire.
  • By the mid-19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, with only Sardinia-Piedmont ruled by an Italian princely house.
  • The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center under the Pope, and the southern regions under the Bourbon kings of Spain. The Italian language itself had many regional variations.
  • Giuseppe Mazzini had tried to form a unitary Italian Republic and established Young Italy, but his revolutionary uprisings failed in 1831 and 1848.
  • The task of unification then fell to Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II, who aimed to unify the Italian states through war, seeing it as an opportunity for economic development and political dominance.
  • Chief Minister Cavour led the movement to unify Italy; he was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat and spoke French better than Italian.
  • Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Cavour engineered the defeat of Austrian forces in 1859.
  • A large number of armed volunteers under Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the effort.
    • In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, winning the support of local peasants to drive out Spanish rulers.
    • Garibaldi led the famous Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy, with volunteers (known as Red Shirts) growing to about 30,000.
    • In 1867, Garibaldi led an army to Rome to fight the Papal States, but they were no match for combined French and Papal troops.
    • The Papal States were finally joined to Italy in 1870 when France withdrew its troops during the war with Prussia.
  • In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
  • However, much of the Italian population, with high illiteracy rates, remained unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology, with some peasants in the south even believing "La Talia" was Victor Emmanuel's wife.

XIII. The Strange Case of Britain

• Gradual Formation of the Nation-State

  • The formation of the nation-state in Britain was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution.
  • There was no 'British nation' prior to the 18th century.
  • The primary identities of people inhabiting the British Isles were ethnic (English, Welsh, Scot, Irish), each with their own cultural and political traditions.

• English Dominance and the Act of Union (1707)

  • As the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance, and power, it extended its influence over the other nations of the islands.
  • The English parliament, which seized power from the monarchy in 1688, was the instrument for forging a nation-state centered on England.
  • The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain'.
  • This effectively meant England could impose its influence on Scotland, and the British parliament became dominated by its English members.
  • The growth of a British identity led to the systematic suppression of Scotland's distinctive culture and political institutions.
  • Catholic clans in the Scottish Highlands faced repression, were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear national dress, and many were forcibly driven from their homeland.

• Incorporation of Ireland (1801)

  • Ireland, deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants, suffered a similar fate.
  • The English supported Irish Protestants in establishing dominance over the largely Catholic country.
  • Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed, including a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen in 1798.
  • Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
  • A new 'British nation' was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture.
  • Symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the English language – were actively promoted.
  • The older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

XIV. Visualizing the Nation

• Personification and Allegory

  • To give a face to a nation, 18th and 19th-century artists personified a nation, representing a country as if it were a person.
  • Nations were typically portrayed as female figures.
  • This female form did not represent a real woman but sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form, becoming an allegory of the nation.
  • During the French Revolution, female allegories were used for ideas like Liberty (red cap, broken chain) and Justice (blindfolded, weighing scales).

• Marianne (France)

  • In France, the female allegory was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, symbolizing a people's nation.
  • Her characteristics were drawn from Liberty and the Republic: the red cap, the tricolour, and the cockade.
  • Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and persuade them to identify with it.
  • Marianne images were also marked on coins and stamps.

• Germania (Germany)

  • Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
  • In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
  • Meanings of Symbols in Allegories:
    • Broken chains: Being freed.
    • Breastplate with eagle: Symbol of the German empire – strength.
    • Crown of oak leaves: Heroism.
    • Sword: Readiness to fight.
    • Olive branch around the sword: Willingness to make peace.
    • Black, red, and gold tricolour: Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, which was banned by the Dukes of the German states.
    • Rays of the rising sun: Beginning of a new era.

XV. Nationalism and Imperialism

• Shift Towards Imperialism (Post-1871)

  • By the last quarter of the 19th century, nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment from the first half of the century.
  • It became a narrow creed with limited ends, leading nationalist groups to become increasingly intolerant of each other and ready to go to war.
  • Major European powers manipulated the nationalist aspirations of subject peoples in Europe to further their own imperialist aims.

• The Balkan Problem

  • The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans.
  • The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation, comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro, whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
  • A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
  • The spread of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, combined with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, made this region highly explosive.
  • Throughout the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire tried to strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms, but with little success.
  • One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away and declared independence.
  • The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence on nationality, using history to prove they had once been independent but were subjugated by foreign powers. They viewed their struggles as attempts to regain long-lost independence.
  • As different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity, the Balkan area became a zone of intense conflict.
  • The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other, each hoping to gain territory at the expense of others.
  • The situation was complicated by big power rivalry in the Balkans, as European powers (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) competed over trade, colonies, and military might.
  • Each power sought to counter the others' influence and extend its own control, which led to a series of wars in the region and ultimately the First World War.

• Global Impact of Anti-Imperialism

  • Nationalism, when aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914.
  • Meanwhile, many countries globally that had been colonized by European powers in the 19th century began to oppose imperial domination.
  • The anti-imperial movements that developed worldwide were nationalist, as they all struggled to form independent nation-states.
  • These movements were inspired by a sense of collective national unity forged in confrontation with imperialism.
  • While European ideas of nationalism were not replicated everywhere, the idea that societies should be organized into 'nation-states' became accepted as natural and universal.

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Just as a master chef carefully separates ingredients and organizes them into courses to reveal the full flavor profile of a meal, this structured breakdown helps to dissect the complex historical narrative of nationalism in Europe, allowing each period and concept to be understood in its distinct, yet interconnected, detail.

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE:

• The concept and practices of a modern state had been developing over a long period of time in Europe. 
• The state in which, a centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory. 
• But a nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent. 
• This commonness did not exist from time immemorial. 
• Rather it was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people. 
• During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe. 
• The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
  

THE THEME OF FREDERIC SORRIEU'S PAINTING:

• In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics'.
• Artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty as a female figure.
• In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
• Leading the procession are the United States and Switzerland, France, Germany, etc.
• From the heavens above, Christ, saints, and angels gaze upon the scene.
• They have been used by the artist to symbolize fraternity among the nations of the world.

 

Description: 

• The first print of the series, shows the people of Europe and America - men and women of all ages and social classes - marching in a long train and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
• A female figure was shown with the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
• On the earth in the foreground of the iage lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
• In Sorrieu's utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume. 

The French Revolution And The Idea Of The Nation

• The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. France was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch. 
• The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. 
• The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
  
  

What are the measures taken to create a sense of common identity among the citizens of france?

The measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people:

• The ideas of La Patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
• A new French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the former Royal Standard.
• The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.
• A centralized administrative system was introduced and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens.
• Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
• Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language of the nation.

 

 Contribution Of Napoleon In Bringing Nationalism

Impact of Napoleonic reforms:

• Through a return to monarchy, Napoleon destroyed democracy in France.

The administrative field was made rational and efficient.

The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code)

• Did away with all the privileges based on birth, 
• established equality before the law, and 
• secured the right to property.
• In the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, Napoleon simplified the administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed the peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
• In the towns, guild restrictions were removed.
• Transport and communication systems were improved.

Napoleon’s invasions were resented in several countries due to:

• Increased taxation
• Censorship
• Forced conscription into the French armies

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

The Aristocracy

• Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
• The members of this class were united by a common way of life.
• They owned estates in the countryside and also townhouses.
• They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
• Their families were often connected by ties of marriage.
• This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. (the majority was the peasantry)

The New Middle Class

• In Western and parts of Central Europe, the growth of industrial production and trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the market.
• In the wake of industrialization, new social groups came into being: a working-class population and a middle class made up of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
• It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

Liberal Nationalism

• Liberalism in the early 19th century stood for freedom for the individual and equality for all before the law for the new middle classes.
• Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent.
• It stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution, and a representative government through parliament.

Yet, equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.

• In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
• In 1834, a customs union, or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. 
• The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

A New Conservatism after 1815

Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family – should be preserved.

Conservatives realized, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernization could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.

The Treaty of Vienna 1815

In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria – who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

The main provisions of the Treaty of Vienna held in 1815 were:

• The Bourbon dynasty which was destroyed during the French Revolution was restored to power.
• France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
• A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in the future.
• Prussia was given new territories on its western frontiers, and Austria was given control of northern Italy.
• The German confederation of 39 states set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
• Russia was given part of Poland and Prussia was given part of Saxony.
• Monarchy was restored and a new conservative order was created in Europe.

Drawbacks:

• Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic.
• They did not tolerate criticism and dissent.
• Sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
• Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays, and songs.

The Revolutionaries

Role of Giuseppe Mazzini as an Italian Revolutionary:

Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1807. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.He founded two underground societies, first Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. Members of these societies were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and German states.

• Mazzini strongly believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations.
• Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
• Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.
• Metternich once remarked, ‘When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.’

Greek War of Independence

An event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the Greek War of Independence.

• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.
  
  
  
• Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
• Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization.
• The English poet Lord Byron organized funds and later went to fight in the war.
• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.

Romanticism

It was a cultural movement that sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment in the following ways:

• Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings.
• The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances, the true spirit of the nation could be popularized.
• They gave emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore to recover an ancient national spirit and to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.

The Role of Language in developing national sentiments in Europe

Poland had been partitioned at the end of the 18th century by the Great Powers – Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Even though it did not exist as an independent territory, nationalist feelings were kept alive through music and language.

• Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
• When Russia occupied Poland, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian was imposed everywhere.
• Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.
• As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for refusing to preach in Russian.
• The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt

The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe in the following ways:

• The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous increase in population which led to widespread unemployment.
• Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
• Small producers in towns faced stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England.
• In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
• The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism (poverty) in towns and countries.

1848 Events:

• Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.
• Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
• A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work.
• National workshops to provide employment were set up.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.
• In Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
• They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.
• In the German regions, a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
• The middle classes resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end, troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.
• The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.
• Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.

The Role of Women in nationalist struggles

The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied voting rights during the election of the Assemble. When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.

The Making of Germany and Italy

The Role of Otto Von Bismarck in the Making of Germany

Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.

• Its chief minister, Otto Von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark, and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
• On January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, and important Prussian ministers including the chief minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.

The Making of Italy

• Italians were scattered over several dynastic states.
• Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
• The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini made efforts to unite Italy. He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy.
• The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.
• Chief Minister Cavour, through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• Also, a large number of armed volunteers under Giuseppe Garibaldi joined them.
• In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain

• In Britain, the formation of a nation-state was a result of a long drawn-out process.
• There was no British nation prior to the 18th century.
• The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones such as English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish.
• Later the English Parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state with England at its center came to be forged.
• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.
• The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
• The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.
• Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.
• The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country.
• Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed.
• After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

Visualising the Nation

• Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries personified the nation. They represented a country as if it were a person.
• Artists portrayed nations as female figures.
• Artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as liberty, justice, and the republic.
• In France, the female allegory was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation.
• Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolor, the cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
• Marianne's images were marked on coins and stamps.
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation. She wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Nationalism and Imperialism

The growth of nationalist tensions in the Balkan region before the First World War

• The Balkan was a region of geographical and ethnic variations comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro. The inhabitants were called Slavs.

• A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire while some other parts were under the control of Russia and Austria causing a complex problem.
• The spread of ideas of Romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made the region very explosive.
• Different Slavic nationalists struggled to define their identities.
• The Balkan region became a region of intense conflict over the expansion of territory.
• At the same time, the great European Powers – Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary were keen on taking the control of the Balkan region, since it was important from the trade point of view.
• This led to a series of wars in the region and finally became the cause of the First World War.

The idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of nationalism in the first half of the 19th century became a narrow creed with limited ends

• During this period, nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each other and were ever-ready to go to war.
• Major European powers manipulated the nationalist aspirations to further their own imperialist aims.
• The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans.
• The idea of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
• One by one, European nationalities broke away from their control and declared independence.
• The Balkan people based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by a foreign power.
• As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.

Previous Year Board exam questions:

1‑Mark Very Short Answer Questions

1. (2024) From which country did Giuseppe Garibaldi belong?
   Answer: Italy. He played a key role in the Risorgimento, the Italian unification movement.
2. (2022) Which countries defeated Napoleon in 1815?
   Answer: Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
3. (2022) Which political ideology dominated Europe after Napoleon’s defeat?
   Answer: Conservatism—Monarchies and traditional order were restored.
4. (2022) Industrialisation began in which country in the late 18th century?
   Answer: England.
5. (2022) In which country did the July 1830 liberal-nationalist upheaval take place?
   Answer: France.
6. (2022) Who said, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold”?
   Answer: Metternich.
7. (2022) Who was the architect of German unification?
   Answer: Otto von Bismarck.
8. (2022) Who founded the Young Italy movement in the 1830s?
   Answer: Giuseppe Mazzini.
9. (2022) Who became the King of united Italy in 1861?
   Answer: Victor Emmanuel II.

 2‑Mark Short Answer Questions

(These often appear as MCQs or fill-in-the-blanks)

1. (2022) Which group of countries defeated Napoleon in 1815?
   Answer: Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
2. (2022) Which ideology ruled after 1815?
   Answer: Conservatism—emphasizing monarchy, church, and traditional hierarchy.
3. (2022) Why is Russia not part of “United Kingdom of Great Britain”?
   Answer: The UK consisted of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland — not Poland or Russia.
4. (2020) Which revolution first expressed nationalism?
   Answer: The French Revolution.
5. (2020) What does the Statue of Liberty depict in Sorrieu’s print?
   Answer: Female figure holding a torch and Charter of Rights, symbolizing enlightenment and liberty.

🔵 3‑Mark Short Answer Questions

1. (2023) Explain Romanticism as a cultural movement.
   Answer: Romanticism emphasized folk traditions, emotions, and shared cultural memories. It used art, music, and literature to foster national feelings, as promoted by thinkers like Herder.
2. (2023) Explain Frederic Sorrieu’s vision.
   Answer: A French artist who, in 1848, created prints envisioning democratic and social republics. He portrayed people from different nations marching under Liberty toward a global federation.
3. (2023) “Ideas of national unity…were allied to liberalism.” Examine.
   Answer:
• Liberalism meant freedom, equality, and constitutional government.
• 1848 liberal revolutions pushed nationalist agendas.
• Both demanded self-determination and collective identity.
4. (2022) What role did language play in nationalism?
   Answer: Language united people culturally and became a tool of resistance—as seen in Poland where Polish was preserved against Russian rule.
5. (2021) What role did Giuseppe Mazzini play in Italian unification?
   Answer: Founded Young Italy; spread republican ideals and inspired youth-led revolts, influencing later leaders despite early failures.

 5‑Mark Long Answer Questions

1. (2017/2021) Describe the impact of the French Revolution on nationalism.
   Answer:
• Spread ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Abolished feudalism and promoted people’s sovereignty.
• French conquests and Napoleonic Code brought uniform laws and national symbols.
• Inspired revolutions and liberal demands—triggered national pride and patriotism.
2. (2020) How did Bismarck unify Germany?
   Answer:
• Implemented “blood and iron” policy.
• Strengthened Prussian military and diplomacy.
• Fought victories over Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870–71).
• Proclaimed the German Empire in 1871 under Prussian King’s leadership.
3. (Positioned across 2021/2020) Describe the Treaty/Congress of Vienna (1815).
   Answer:
• Convened by Austria’s Metternich to undo French Revolution/Napoleonic changes.
• Restored monarchies (e.g., Bourbon France), created buffer zones.
• Suppressed liberal/nationalist ideas but sowed the seeds for future uprisings.
4. (2023) Explain how early nationalism lost its democratic ideals by late 19th century.
   Answer:
• Early nationalism was liberal and inclusive.
• Later turned aggressive—militaristic, ethnocentric, imperialistic.
• Minorities were excluded or oppressed (e.g., Balkans).
• Led to heightened tensions that contributed to WWI.

Get comprehensive, student-friendly, and exam-focused notes on "The Rise of Nationalism in Europe" – the first chapter of Class 10 CBSE History. These detailed notes are based on the latest NCERT syllabus and are tailored to help you ace your CBSE Board Exams 2025.

In this post, you’ll find:
✅ Key concepts with explanations
✅ Timeline of important events
✅ Detailed 1, 3, and 5-mark answers from previous board exams
✅ Important terms like Liberalism, Conservatism, Nation-State
✅ Contributions of Mazzini, Bismarck, Garibaldi, Metternich
✅ Causes and impact of the French Revolution and Unification movements

Ideal for quick revision, board preparation, and concept clarity.

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Exercise Questions and Answers

Q1: Write a note on:

(a) Guiseppe Mazzini
Ans:

• Italian revolutionary who founded Young Italy.

• Believed in the unification of Italy under a republican form.

• Opposed monarchy and inspired nationalist movements in Europe.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour
Ans:

• Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia (Italy).

• A diplomat and statesman who led the unification of Italy.

• Formed strategic alliances (e.g., with France) and helped drive out the Austrians.

(c) The Greek War of Independence
Ans:

• Fought against Ottoman Empire (started in 1821).

• Helped by nationalists and scholars across Europe.

• Greece became an independent nation in 1832, supported by Britain, France, and Russia.

(d) Frankfurt Parliament
Ans:

• Elected all-German National Assembly (1848).

• Met at Frankfurt to draft a constitution for a German nation.

• Offered the crown to the Prussian King, who rejected it. The effort failed.

(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
Ans:

• Actively participated in revolts and protests.

• Despite participation, they were denied political rights.

• Examples include women in the 1848 revolution and nationalist artists portraying "female allegories" like Marianne and Germania.

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Q2: What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Ans:

• Introduced a new flag (tricolour).

• National anthem (La Marseillaise) composed.

• Standardized language and abolished internal customs duties.

• Established uniform laws and encouraged a common identity.

• New school textbooks, centralized administrative systems.

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Q3: Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Ans:

• Marianne: Allegory of the French nation – depicted with red cap, tricolour, and liberty torch.

• Germania: Allegory of the German nation – shown with crown of oak leaves, sword, and black-red-gold flag.

• They symbolized the nation as female figures to inspire unity, liberty, and sacrifice.

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Q4: Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Ans:

• Led by Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia.

• Used policy of “blood and iron” – 3 wars:

  1. With Denmark (1864),

  2. With Austria (1866),

  3. With France (1870–71).

• After winning the Franco-Prussian War, Germany was unified under Prussian leadership in 1871.

• Wilhelm I became the German Emperor.

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Q5: What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Ans:

• Abolished feudal privileges and serfdom.

• Introduced the Napoleonic Code (1804) – ensured equality before law and right to property.

• Improved transport and communication.

• Standardized weights and measures, simplified laws.

• However, in conquered territories, heavy taxes and censorship created resentment.

 

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